1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Indians, North American

by Cato Sells

INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN (see 14.452^[1]).—In the region N. of Mexico, to which this article is confined, the Indians are no longer warlike nor do they resist to any extent efforts for their civilization. The United States Government assumes that health, education and industry are essential to the Indian's self-support and citizenship. The settled policy is, therefore, to hasten his advancement in these particulars and meanwhile to protect his personal and property rights. Under the administration of the Bureau of Indian Affairs there are provided health supervisors, school and agency physicians, field matrons, nurses, travelling dentists and hospitals for all forms of disease, but with special reference to the care of infants and expectant mothers, and the treatment of tuberculosis and trachoma. For education, the Government conducts 184 day schools, 61 reservation and 29 non-reservation boarding schools with an attendance of over 25,000 pupils, and provides courses of study combining academic and industrial training adapted to Indian needs and temperament. The aim is to prepare girls to become good housewives and mothers in their home communities and to fit boys for practical farming, or to give them such elementary knowledge and practice in mechanics as will lead to skilled workmanship. At seven of the larger schools vocational training extends through the tenth grade and at one of them is a thorough commercial course. In 1920 these advanced schools enrolled 5,300 students; their graduates readily found remunerative employment in agriculture, the trades and business pursuits. In all Federal schools prominence is given to hygiene, to moral conduct, to religious culture and to the practice of thrift. State public schools in 1920 were accessible to and enrolled more than 30,000 Indian children. Over 5,000 are cared for in mission and private schools.

To promote reservation industries there were maintained, in 1920, eight demonstration and four experimentation farms, and several hundred farmers, stockmen and assistants living near Indian communities were employed for purposes of oversight and instruction in modern methods of agriculture and the breeding and handling of live stock. Loans were made to energetic Indians from tribal or Government funds as initial capital for beginning their self-support. Special attention was given to the reclamation of arid and semi-arid Indian lands, resulting in the irrigation of about 350,000 ac., with nearly a million more under project. The annual increase in crop values was nearly equal to the cost of the investment. Tribal herds of sheep and cattle were maintained on a number of reservations with financial profit, but chiefly to encourage individual ownership and enterprise in live stock. The affairs of the Alaskan Indians were supervised by the U.S. Bureau of Education. Sixty-seven schools were conducted, with a field force of 6 superintendents, 9 physicians, 13 nurses and 133 teachers. Five hospitals were maintained and native girls were taught nursing. The work was carried on in 67 villages scattered along the coast and on the great rivers. Imperfect transportation and adverse climatic conditions rendered the service very difficult, but progress was substantial.

In Canada the Department of Indian Affairs has administrative charge of all Indians and Eskimos. There were in 1911 103,661 Indians and 4,600 Eskimos in Canada, a total of 108,261; in 1919 105,998 Indians and 3,296 Eskimos, a total of 109,294. The Spanish influenza affected the increase for 1920, and the approximate figures for that year were 105,800 Indians and 3,200 Eskimos, a total of 109,000. The Indians and Eskimos are located on reserves in different parts of the Dominion, and the Department of Indian Affairs directs through its 114 agencies the activities for their education and health, and the development of agriculture and other pursuits among them. The less civilized groups are stationary in population, but the more progressive show an appreciable gain in number and physical standards. The educational work comprises 247 day, 58 boarding and 16 industrial schools. The staff of an agency, which may control from one to 30 bands, usually includes, besides the agent, a medical officer, clerk, farm instructor, field matron, stockman, constable, etc., whose work is supervised by inspectors. The Indian population is chiefly W. of Lake Superior. In the vast region E. of the Rocky Mountains, where the aboriginal title was extinguished, the Government promised gifts in cash and lands and aid in education and agriculture. Food was supplied for a time, following the disappearance of the buffalo, but is now practically discontinued, as farming, stock-raising and, in the more remote districts, hunting and fishing furnish means of livelihood. In British Columbia no cession of the Indian title was sought or obtained, but adequate reserves have been set apart, many of which are suitable for stock-raising and to some extent farming and horticulture, and the same assistance in education and agriculture is given as in the Prairie provinces. In the older regions of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec the Indians are entering more and more into the life of the country as farmers, artisans, teachers and lumbermen, with

some few as surveyors and physicians, and are increasingly becoming citizens. Enfranchisement, however, which establishes full citizenship, is extended with great discretion, since, if prematurely conferred, the Indians concerned cannot hold their own with white men.

Under the policies outlined the N. American Indians in the United States and the Dominion made unusual progress during the decade 1910-20. Their population at its close was greater than at any time in the preceding half-century. They depend less upon “medicine men” and more upon medical science and sanitation. As compared with earlier periods, they are giving more attention to permanent homes; are less nomadic and superstitious. Their women are better house-keepers, and infant mortality is decreasing. The day of paint and feathers and blanket garb is passing. Nearly two-thirds of their number wear citizens' clothing. The younger, school-trained element is creating a new leadership manifested in changing habits, customs, industrial pursuits and social life. Marriage by tribal custom giving way to legal rites, and crime is diminishing. In the United States approximately three-fourths of the Indian children suitable age and health are enrolled in some school, Federal, state or mission. There has been a steady increase in the number of Indians who speak, as well as of those who read and write, English, and a friendly Indian sentiment towards the schools generally prevails. Substantial advancement is noticeable in agricultural operations and stock-raising, the use of modern machinery and methods, in the large additions to individual funds, and the increasing citizenship through the acquirement of fee title to lands, as well as in the lively interest the Indians now show in exhibits of their industrial products at fairs, where they compete with one another and with the whites.

The acceptance by the Indians of the principles of government and civilization was proved by their conduct in the World War. In the United States the number of Indians in military service was more than 10,000, three-fourths of whom enlisted. In Canada the number exceeded 4,000, all volunteers, as they were exempted from the operation of the Military Service Act. The percentage of Indians of military age in the war was probably equal to that of the whites and their proportion of volunteers even greater. They were mingled almost entirely with white organizations and were highly commended by their officers for their intelligence, courage, discipline and efficiency. The Indians ineligible for war duty were equally patriotic. They were active in Red Cross and other relief work, and responded to emergency demands for all productive labour. In the United States they subscribed $25,000,000 for Liberty Bonds, and purchased upwards of $2,000,000 in War Savings Stamps.

Indians in the United States Exclusive of Alaska

Population and Citizenship.

	1911	1920
Population	322,715	336,337
Received allotments of land	164,215	175,433
Received patent in fee to land	76,033	119,800
Received trust patents to land	88,182	55,633
Citizens	179,830	184,968

Educational and Vital Conditions.

	1911	1920
Children eligible for school	63,411	82,856
Children in Federal schools	23,647	25,396
Children in public schools (State)	11,000	30,858
Children in mission and private schools	4,750	5,546
Total children in all schools	39,397	61,800
Capacity of all schools	43,015	62,298
Could speak English	121,431	173,193
Could read and write English	79,843	126,331
Church-going Indians	104,529	146,176
Missionary workers among the Indians	472	627
Hospitals and sanatoria maintained	50	85
Capacity of hospitals and sanatoria	1,268	2,190
Patients treated	8,408	16,954
Given medical examination	42,645	67,053
Wearing citizens' clothing	238,410	296,841
Families living in permanent homes	46,379	64,195
Arrested for drunkenness	2,057	568
Deputies employed for liquor suppression	154	42
Marriages by tribal custom	606	237
Marriages by legal procedure	1,177	1,636

Industrial Activities and Resources.

	1911	1920
Indians engaged in farming	24,489	49,962
Number of acres cultivated	383,025	890,700
Value of crops raised	$1,951,752	$11,927,366
Irrigated acreage cultivated	454,485	607,044
Indians benefited by irrigation	27,145	37,030
Crops on irrigated lands	$3,008,338	$15,773,349
Home buildings, furniture, and farm implements	$10,029,184	$30,657,763
Individual funds in bank	$10,735,723	$38,035,476
Value of live stock sold	$900,000	$4,080,375
Value of all live stock	$19,471,209	$35,158,731
Value of timber cut	$1,398,166	$2,060,559
Income from land sales and individual leases	$8,402,669	$11,686,726
Engaged in native industries	21,235	26,949
Employed by private parties	3,204	13,079
Employed in Indian Service (regular and irregular)	8,577	12,244
Value of products from native industries	$847,456	$1,869,907
Earnings from private parties	$591,672	$2,654,008
Earnings from Indian Service	$1,269,958	$1,586,141
Income from minerals, chiefly oil, gas and coal	$1,406,001	$23,838,382
Total value of individual and tribal property	$523,134,254	$751,725,329
Total income of Indians	$21,092,923	$72,696,431
Total revenue to Indians from minerals for decade ended June 30 1920	—	$83,796,622

Indians in Canada

Property Values.

	1911	1920
Land in reserves	$29,421,972.50	$51,535,245.00
Public buildings, prop. of bands	932,052.00	1,245,800.00
Private fencing, buildings, implements, etc.	5,412,035.35	8,103,160.00
Live stock and poultry	2,587,841.80	4,443,970.00
General and household effects	2,012,708.40	2,586,902.00
Total value of real and personal property	$40,366,610.05	$67,915,077.00

Sources and Value of Income.

	1911	1920
Farm products, including hay	$1,459,962.46	$3,462,147.00
Beef sold or used for food	236,753.36	450,415.00
Received from land rentals and timber	66,072.12	154,446.00
Wages earned	1,540,021.10	2,521,618.00
Earned by fishing, hunting and trapping	1,511,053.85	1,863,886.00
Earned from other industries	852,944.63	1,714,988.00
Annuities paid and interest in Indian Trust fund	(not reported)	621,341.85
Total	$5,666,807.52	$10,788,841.85
Average per capita value, real and personal property	—	$674.43
Average per capita income	—	107.13

(C. Se.)

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