A Danish and Dano-Norwegian Grammar/Norwegian Sounds

by Peter Olsen Groth

NORWEGIAN SOUNDS.

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81. Table of the Norwegian vowels classified according to their place of articulation.

		Back.		Mixed		Front.
		Not rounded.	Rounded.	Not rounded.	Rounded.	Not rounded.	Rounded.
High,	Narrow		o		u	i	y
	Wide
Mid.	Narrow		å·			e	ø
	Wide		å			ä	ö
Low.	Narrow					æ	œ
	Wide	a

For the explanation of the technical terms: Back, Mixed, Front, High, Mid, Low, see § 10.

Note. a is a little advanced, but not so much so as in Danish. Vulgarly and dialectically the long a may be pronounced further back and with a slight rounding, approaching the English aw in law.

o is midway between high and mid and å midway between mid and low, but both are pronounced with the rounding corresponding to the higher stage.

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ACOUSTIC VALUE OF THE NORWEGIAN VOWELS.

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82. a has the sound of English a in father, short or long. Ex. short: Hat hat, Man(d) man; long: Dag day, Sol hall.

83. æ has the sound of English a in care; it occurs long or short before r; Ex. long: bœre to bear, lœre to teach, nœr near; short: Fœrd conduct, voyage, Smerte pain, Verk work.

Note. The orthographic sign of this sound may be, as seen from the above examples, œ or e; the former is used when the same word in another form or another kindred word has a or aa where the word in question has æ; Ex. : Færd derived from fare to travel, bære to carry, impf. bar; færre fewer, comp. of faa; Kærring old (or married) woman derived from Kar(l) man. Where this rule does not apply, i. e. where there is no such a or aa to judge by, then the long a-sound as a rule is written œ, the short e. But there are some exceptions. Ex. long sound written e: der there, er is, Erende message, fjerde fourth, her here, igjer(d)e (or igjære) going on, Jern iron, Jertegn sign, miracle. Short sound written œ: fordærve to spoil, forfærde to frighten; særdeles especially, værd (colloquially pronounced vært) worth, værre worse.

Obs. Veir weather, pron. vær

84. ä long or short, like English e in “men”; Ex. short: ret right, slet even, bad, trœt tired ; long: Glœdeoy, Fœdre fathers, Stœder cities.

Orthographic signs of the sound ä are œ and e; their use corresponds to the rule given in § 83 note. Exceptions: a) long ä written e: Eventyr fairy tale, ihje‘l to death, Kjede chain, vever agile; b) short ä written œ: Drœg grapnel, Vœg wall, Grœs grass, hœslig ugly, lemlœste to maim, Vœske satchel, Vœ(d)ske fluid, rœd afraid, trœt tired, Kjœft (vulgar) mouth, Tœft scent, Krœft cancer, Blœk ink, lœkke to leak, Lœk leak, Sprœk crack, sprœkke to crack, Fœlle fellow, Trœl thrall, Vœld spring, Vœlde power, (Il)vœlv vault, Kjœlke sled, Frœnde relative, œnse to mind, faafœngt useless, forfængelig vain, Hævd prescriptive right.

Note. In the dialect of Christiania and the southern part of Norway the long sound of ä has been replaced by the long e, and the short sound of ä is only half wide. 85. e like French e in “été”, English a in “name” as usually pronounced in America, i. e. without the diphthongic element. Short e only occurs in words formed by inflection or derivation from words with long e; Ex.: bre(d)t neuter form of bre(d) broad, Bredde breadth, derived from the same word; Ex. long: Te tea, Ve(d) wood, hed (pron. het) hot.

Orthographic sign of this sound is e.

Note. In the dialect of Christiania and the southern part of Norway the long sound of e has been substituted for that of ä, see § 84 note. On the other hand the short sound of e is in the speech of many, even educated, people in the course of being replaced by a half wide short ä. As yet, however, the pronouriciation of brät instead of bre(d)t may be considered as bordering on the vulgar.

86. i short or long; it has the narrow sound of English ee in “see”; Ex. long: Vin wine, ti ten, i in; short: Vin(d) wind, li(d)t (neut.) little. Orthographic sign i, except in the word de (De) they, the, you.

Note. For the pronunciation of mig, dig, sig see § 94. Before vowels i as a rule is pronounced so very short as to make it almost or wholly consonantic in character: Kastanie (pron. Kastanje) chestnut, Familie (j) family, Kristiania (j, or as a very short i); as a short i also in Kariol carriole, Million; tredie the third is pronounced tredde or tredje.

87. ə has the sound of German unaccented e in “Gabe,” approaching French e in “que”; but often its articulation is more advanced and then it sounds almost like a short e. This is especially often the case in unaccented prefixes, ə only occurs in unaccented syllables; orthographic sign e; Ex.: Gave gift, være to be, befale (ə-a-ə) to order.

Note. the orthographic sign for ə is i or e in tusin(d) or tusen(d) thousand.

88. å has a sound approaching English a in call (but it is pronounced with a somewhat higher articulation; raised low or lowered mid; the rounding is the same as corresponds to the mid sound (o) in the European languages generally. It may be long or short, the short sound being somewhat wider than the long one.

Note 1. Orthographic sign of the long sound is as a rule aa (å); Ex: Aal eel, graa grey, Vaar spring.

Exceptions: before g and v the sound of å is usually written o: over over, doven lazy, love to promise,Skov forest, og and, Sprog language; but if g represents the sound of k (see § 122), then the sound of å is written aa (å): Maage mew, pron. måke (or måge), Taage(k) fog, vaage(k) to wake, vaagen awake; also in Vaag (g) bay, Aag (g) yoke. Observe also Fole (å) colt, Torsdag (a) Thursday, vor (å) our, fore a prefix (forebygge to prevent, Foremers foretop).

note 2. The orthographic sign of the short sound as a rule is o; Ex.: Lod half an ounze, holde to hold, Konge king. Exceptions: aa is as a rule written before nd, representing the sound nn: Baan(d) ribbon, Han(d) hand; in the words Aadsel carcass, fraadse gourmandize, and others; furthermore in forms or words derived from corresponding words with a long aa; Ex.: graat neut. of graa grey, haar(d)t neut. of haar(d) hard, etc.

89. o has no exact equivalent outside of the Scandinavian languages, although it comes very near to the sound of English oo in “poor.” Its place of articulation is midway between “high” and “mid,” and the rounding corresponds to high (oo). It may be short or long. Orthographic sign for the long sound is o, for the short o or u; Ex. long: (jeg) lo (I) laughed, Horn horn, Hob multitude; Ex. short: Bonde peasant, op up (in Christiania pronounced åp), Buk (o) he-goat, tung (o) heavy. u serves to represent this sound before ng, nk and as a rule before m ending a syllable or followed by another consonant,f, k and gt. Furthermore in the following words: Kunst art, Spuns bung. Kul, coal, is sometimes pronounced kol.

90. Also the Scandinavian u is a peculiar sound without any exact equivalent in English. It comes nearest to the English u in “full” or “put.” In pronouncing the Norwegian u the back of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate and the point remains behind the lower incisors, while the lips are considerably protruding. Ex. long: Gud God, Ur watch, hul (adj.) hollow, Brud bride; short: Brud breach, Gut boy, Hul hole (also pronounced Hol).

Note. For u being the orthographic sign of o see § 89.

91. y has the tongue position of i, the lip rounding of u. It sounds like German ü, French u in “lune,” only still thinner, nearer to i. It may be short or long. Phonetic sign y. Ex. long: By town, syv seven, yde yield; short: yppe to raise, yste to make cheese, bygge to build.

Note. For y being sometimes pronounced as ö see § 92 note.

92. ø ö.

ø is a rounded e and has a sound like French eu in “peu”; it only occurs long, but is never found before radical r; Ex.: Ø island, dø die, (Hunden) gjør (the dog) barks. ö is a rounded œ and has a sound like French eu in “peuple,” German ö in “Götter.” It occurs both short and long, long only before radical r. In this latter position, however, the dialect of Christiania has a still lower (more open) sound œ. Ex. ö: sö(d)t sweet (neut.), grön green; ö or œ: Börn or Bœrn children, gjör or gjœr does, hörlig or hœrlig audible.

Note. The orthographic sign of all three sounds, ø, ö and œ is in print as a rule ø, in writing ö.

In a few words the sign y represents the sound of ö: sytten (ö) 17, sytti (ö) 70, fyrti (ö, œ) 40. Also in some other words y may be pronounced as ö: Lykke luck, Stykke piece, Bryst breast, flytte to move. But the pronunciation as y is regularly heard among educated people.

NORWEGIAN DIPHTHONGS.

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93. The diphthongic sounds occurring in the Norwegian language are: ai, æi, oi, öi, œu. ai has a sound like English i in “mile.” Ex.: Hai shark, Kai quay, vaie wave, float. In the word Mai May, a as a rule is pronounced long.

94. æi has the orthographic sign ei, which sign always represents the sound here indicated (not as in Danish: ai); Ex.: lei tedious, disagreeable; Vei road.

In some words eg, ek, ig serve as signs for this diphthongic sound: jeg I (pron. jæi), mig me, dig you, sig himself etc. (pron. mæi etc.). seksten 16 (pron. sæisten).

egl, egn are in tho greater part of Norway pronounced æil, æin; but in the northern part egn is pronounced engn; Ex.: Negl (æi) nail, Tegl (æi) tile, Regn (æin or engn) rain. In mathematics distinction is made between Kegle cone and Kile wedge, lat. cuneus. But in everyday speech both words are pronounced alike; slaa kjiler (i. e Kegler) play at ninepins, slaa ind en kjile (i. e. Kile) drive in a wedge.

95. oi only occurs in some foreign words; it has the same sound as English oy in “boy,” but has a tendency to become assimilated with öi: holloi halloo, Konvoi convoy.

96. In öi the first element of the diphthong is the wide ö, the second a wide y; Ex.: höi high, Töi cloth, föite to gad. ög in Lögn lie, Dögn day and night, as a rule represents the same sound, but in the northern part of the country those words are pronounced löngn, döngn. Nögel key is by some people pronounced nøiel, commonly nökkel.

The word Bygd country township is sometimes pronounced böid, but usually as it is spelt. The former pronunciation is still considered somewhat vulgar, although Ibsen uses it in “Brand” in the following rhyme:

Tusen fulgte mig af Bygden (öi),
ikke én tandt op til Höiden.

The sound of öi is in some foreign words represented by eu: Farmaceut (pron. söit) pharmacist, Lieutenant (pron. and now regularly spelt löitnant), neutral (öi) neuter, Eugen (pron. öisjnén).

97. œu has a sound that comes very near the Cockney pronunciation of ou in “house.” Orthographical sign au. Ex.: taus silent, August, Taug rope.

This diphthong is written eu in Europa. (But in Greek names Zeus etc. eu is pronounced ev).

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NORWEGIAN CONSONANTS.

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98. p as in English; Ex.: Pave pope, Penge money, Pil arrow, op up.

Note 1. Vulgar is a tendency to pronounce p before t as f; Ex.: kaftein for Kaptein Captain, skaft for skapt (written skabt) shaped.

Note 2. The sound of p is written b in the following cases:

1) after short vowel before, mostly inflective, t and s: skabt (p) shaped, raabt (pron. ropt) called, Krebs (p) crawfish, Skibshund (p) ship’s dog, Labskaus (p) lobcscouse: Læbe lip is often pronounced læppe, with short vowel.

2) after a long vowel when p either ends a word or is followed by ə (see § 6 in fine); Ex.: Gab (p) yawn, gale (pə) to yawn, Skrab (p) trash, skrabe (p) to scrape, Skab (p) wardrobe, Tab (p) loss, tabe (p) to lose, Kaabe (p) cloak, taabelig (b or p) foolish, krybe (p) to creep. Among the younger generation of authors it is getting always more common to spell these words in accordance with the Norwegian pronunciation. It is only in a small part of the coast districts in the southernmost part of Norway that b in these words is pronounced as written, similarly to the pronunciation in Danish (see § 4).

99. b sounds like English b; this sound occurs in the beginning, middle (chiefly in foreign words) and end of words; Ex.: By town, Bly lead, Hybel garret, Lab (pr. labb) paw.

Note. Sometimes b interchanges with p after a long vowel (see § 98 Note 2), b being reserved for a more elevated style or a figurative meaning; Ex.:

p.	b.
döbe, p, to baptize.	Daab, b, baptism; Johannes den Döber John the Baptist.
gribe, p, to catch.	figuratively: en gribende Scene an impressive scene.
raabe (pr. rope) to call aloud, cry.	raabe in some sentences figuratively: hans Forbrydelse raaber om Hævn his crime cries for vengeance.
Raab (raap, rop) cry, call.	Raab, b: Raabet paa Reformer the clamor for reforms. Raaber a speaking trumpet.
skröbelig, p, fragile, frail.	figuratively: Kjödet er skröbeligt, b, the flesh is weak.
tabe, p, to lose.	fortabes, b (theol.) to be damned; et Fortabelsens Barn a child of perdition.
sleben, p, ground, cut (slepet Glas, cut glass).	et slebent, b, Væsen a polished address.
skabe, p, sig to act in an affected manner.	skabe, b, to create; Skabelse creation.
Svöbe (pr. Svepe) driving whip.	Svöde, öb, scourge.
–skab, p, in Ondskab, p, evilness, Troldskab, p, witchcraft; Ægteskab, p, marriage.	–skab, b, in Kundskab (also p) knowledge, Videnskab, b, science.

100. m bilabial nasal, like the English m; Ex.: maa must, om about, komme to come. Before f m assumes a labiodental character, more rarely before v; Ex.: Jomfru young woman, stewardess.

101. f is a labiodental open sound like English f; Ex.: faa get, puffe to push.

Note 1. In the word af of f is a sign for the sound of v, see § 102, Note 1.

Note 2. In inflective forms of words, the stems of which end in “v” the sound of f is sometimes written “v”: havt (partcp.) pron. haft had (colloquially pron. hat); see § 102 Note 2.

102. v is a labiodental open voiced sound, not quite so sharply articulated as English v. Occurs both in the beginning, middle and at the end of words; Ex.: vi we, love to promise, Skov forest.

Note 1. In the word af of this sound has the orthographic sign f.

Note 2. v is the orthographic sign of the sound f 1) before s and t in inflective forms of words, the stems of which end in v, when the vowel preceding v is short; if the preceding vowel is long, then v retains its sound; in some words both pronunciations (long vowel & v and short vowel & f) are admissible; Ex.: sætte tillivs (f) to dispatch (food); Livsens (f) of life, grovt (v or f) rough (neuter form), paaskrævs (v or f) astride, tilhavs (v or f) at sea. Also revse (f) to castigate. Colloquially the imperfect lovede promised is pronounced lofte. 2) In the words: Viol (flower) violet, Violin, Violoncel.

Note 3. v is written but not pronounced after l in hal(v) half, sel(v) self, Söl(v) silver, tol(v) twelve, tol(v)te twelfth, Tyl(v)t dozen; furthermore in Pro(v)st dean, Tvi(v)l doubt (now regularly written Tvil), ha(v)t had, bra(v) or brav, plural pronounced brave or bra.

For bli(ve)r gi(ve)r see § 140 c.

103. t is a voiceless dental stop, slightly aspirated, especially in the beginning of words, but much less so than in Danish. The aspiration is omitted after s, t in this position thus representing a sound between t and d; Ex.: Tal number, Hat hat, Potet potato, stor big.

{{sm|th does not represent any other sound than t; it is used in some words of Greek origin and as a rule in the conjunction thi for, to distinguish it from the numeral ti ten, both words being pronounced alike. Sometimes also in Thing Session of court, Storthing name of Norwegian parliament, to distinguish these words from Ting thing; furthermore in Throndhjem, Thorsdag Thursday; but these words are now generally spelt without h.}}

Note 1. t is written but not pronounced 1) in de(t) that, the (pron. art.) and in the enclitic definite article neuter; Ex.: Huse(t) the house. In elevated speech, however, the t in this latter case usually retains its sound.

2) in the words Gjes(t)giver country innkeeper, Vær(t)shus inn.

3) in the infinitive particle at to, colloquially pronounced å, thus distinguished from the conjunction at that, pronounced as written. In stead of Disputats disputation, Notits notice, etc., it is now the rule to write Disputas, Notis, etc.

Note 2. For tj in some words representing the sound of kj see § 119 Note.

104. The sound of t is represented by the sign d in many words finally and before ə after a long vowel; Ex.: blød (t) soft, bide (t) to bite, Baad (t) boat, kaad (t) jolly, vaad (t) wet, Flaade (t) raft, Maade (t) manner, (but Saate hay-cock also spelt with t, because it is a distinctly Norwegian word), Fad (t) dish, flad (t) flat, Gade (t) street, lad (t) lazy, Mad (t) food, fed (t) fat, Gjed (t) goat, hed (t) hot, hede (t) to be called, lede (t) to search, Hvede (t) wheat, Sæde (t) seat (but gjæte to guard (grazing animals) spelt with t cfr. Saate), did (t) thither, hvid (t) white, hid (t) hither, liden (t) little, Fod (t) foot, mod (t) against, Bod (t) amende, Rod (t) root, rode (t) to rummage, Sod (t) soot, Grud (t) grounds, lude (t) to stoop, Knude (t) knot, Lud (t) lye, Pude (t) pillow, Stud (t) oxe, tude (t) to toot, Tud (t) spout, ud (t) cut, ude (t) out, bryde (t) break, Gryde (t) pot, Lyde (t) blemish, skryde (t) to boast, skyde (t) to shoot, snyde (t) to blow (the nose), bøde (t) to pay a fine, Bøder (t) fines, Fløde (t) cream, Grød (t) porridge, møde (t) meeting, Stød (t) push, støde (t) to push, Skjøde (t) deed of conveyance.

Double consonant after short vowel: Nod pron. Nött nut, Fodder feet, pron. Fötter, sidde to sit, pron. sitte.

Note. For some of these words in specific meanings being pronounced with d, see § 106.

105. d like English d; Ex. : da then, blodi(g) bloody, rœd (dd) afraid.

Note. Where the Danish and the common Norwegian orthography have d in the end or middle of words after a long vowel, the common Norwegian pronunciation as a rule either has t or drops the d. In the former case d corresponds to ON. t (see §§ 4 & 6), in the latter to ON. ð.

106. Some words written with d are pronounced with d or t according to the meaning. The voiced explosive as a rule occurs in learned words and those chiefly occurring in higher style.

t.	d.
fiyde, t, to float, to flow.	fiydende d, liquid.
grœde, t (gråte) to cry, to weep.	begrœde, d, to cry over.
Kjöd, tt, meat.	Kjöd, ød, flesh.
lide, t, to thrust.	Tillid, d, trust, paalidelig, d, trustworthy.
	Note. Always lide, d, to suffer.
Maade, t, manner.	Maade, d, mode (gram.); Tak i lige Maade thanks, the same to you.
nyde, t, to take (food), nyde, t, godt af noget to draw profit of something.	nyde, d, to enjoy, nydelig enjoyable, pretty.
raadden, tt, rotten, putrid	raadden (morally) foul.
Mod, t, courage.	modig, courageous.
Flade, d or t, plane.	always overfladisk superficial.
Skjöd, t, lap (Frakkesjöd coatlap), Skjödskind (shoemaker's) apron.	i Familiens Skjöd in the bossom of the family.
vide, t, to know.	Videnskab science, Viden knowledge.

t.	d.
ydre, tt, outer; Yderfrak, tt, overcoat; yderst, tt, outermost.	yderst utmost, den yderste Dag the day of judgment.
bide t, to bite.	bidende pungent (answer, speech).
blöd, t, soft.	blödagtig effeminate.
Flaade t, raft.	Flaade fleet.
forbryde, t, sig to offend, trespass.	Forbryder criminal, Forbrydelse crime.
lade, t, let; lade som om to make it appear that. (See also § 140).	lade: det maa man lade ham, it must be admitted that he.
overlade, t, to leave; tillade, t, to allow.	tilsyneladende apparently, Tilladelse permission.

107. d is often written at the end or in the middle of words after a long vowel without being pronounced (see § 105 Note). In rhetoric language the d may be retained in pronunciation, and in some words there are duplicate forms with or without d according to the meaning.

Without d.	With d.
Bla(d) leaf, sheet, newspaper	Nordiske Blade (name of newspaper), ta(ge) Bladet fra Munden to speak one's mind.
bli(d) gentle, bland.	dit blide Aasyn your sweet face.
Blo(d) blood, at spytte Blo(d) to spit blood, blo(d)rö(d) red as blood.	Kjöd og Blod flesh and blood, Blodets Baand the ties of blood; in many compounds: Blodbad carnage, Blodhevn revenge for murder, Blodskam incest.
bre(d) broad: der skal en bre(d) Ryg til at bœre gode Dage it takes a broad back to carry god fortune.	de Brede Bygder the broad parishes.
Brö(d) bread.	vort daglige Bröd our daily bread; den enes Död, den andens Bröd one man's death, the other man's breath (literally: bread).

Without d.	With d.
dö(d) dead; (colloquialiy may be used the genuine Norwegian form dau in the meaning of sluggish).	Död death; död og magteslös null and void; d is always pronounced when the adjective is used as a noun: en död a dead man, staa op fra de döde to rise from the dead.
Flo(d) high tide.	Flod river.
gla(d) joyous.	et glad Budskab glad tidings, en glad Aften a merry night.
go(d) good.	den gode the good man, et Gode a blessing.
Raa(d) means, expedient: der er ingen Raa(d) med ham there is no outcome with him, det er ikke Raa(d) it is not possible, jeg har ikke Raa(d) I cannot afford, raa(d)lös without an expedient.	Raad advice, en Statsraad (king's) minister, Kongens Raad the king's council, raadföre sig med en to seek somebody's advice.
rö(d) red, en rö(d) Nœse a red nose.	han er röd he is red (i. e. radical in politics), de röde Hunde the red dogs (i. e. roseola).
stri(d), adj. headstrong.	Strid, subst. strife.
Ti(d) time, in go(d) Ti(d) plenty of time, alti(d) always.	Tid time, usual form.
vi(d) wide, en vi(d) Frakke a wide coat.	en vid Horisont a wide horizon (i. e. scope of ideas), uden videre without further ado.

109. d is always pronounced in Bad bath, Bod booth, Bryderi trouble, Daad deed, Ed oath, Fraade foam, Fred peace, Gröde crop, Gud God, Had hate, Hœder honor’ led loathsome, Lyd sound, Naade grace, Odel allodial ownership; as a rule in Bud message, always when this word indicates messenger.

d also as a rule is pronounced in derivatives; Ex. : fredelig peaceful, Glœde joy, raadelig advisable. 109. nd and ld are as a rule pronounced nn and ll: Mand (nn) man, Mund (nn) mouth, kold (ll) cold, Kulde (lle) subst. cold, holde (lle) to hold, volde (lle) to cause.

d is pronounced as d after l before r: Alder age, Bulder noice, Hulder wood nymph, Skulder shoulder; and in the following words: Gilde company, hilde to snare, Kilde fountain, Olding old man, Ælde age, Vœlde power; furthermore in derivative words when the ending commences in a vowel: gylden golden, heldig fortunate (but Hel(d) fortune).

d is pronounced after n before r and l: andre others, handle to deal, Handel (pr. handl) a deal; d is also pronounced in derivatives: sandelig verily, sandig sandy; also as a rule in Kvinde woman, Minde reminiscence; jeg har i Sinde I have in mind (but jeg gjorde det i Sinne I did it in anger), Kunde customer.

110. d is mute 1) before s a) after a short vowel, in which case ds is pronounced ss: be(d)st best, Bi(d)sel bridle, bi(d)sk snappish, Pla(d)s place, Kry(d)s cross, hind quarter, pu(d)sig funny, and many others; b) in some words after a long vowel: Lo(d)s pilot, lo(d)se to pilot, Seila(d)s sailing, Straba(d)s (or ts) exertion; c) between n and s: Brœn(d)sel fuel, min(d)ske to decrease (the orthographic rule is to write d between n and s in the words derived from primitives with d: Ex. : Han(d)ske glove, from Haand hand; but danse to dance, Grœnse limit, etc.); 2) before t when a d belonging to the stem comes before an inflective t: Ex. : god—go(d)t good, blöd—blö(d)t soft lide—li(d)t (part.) suffer; [before t of a derivative ending d is retained in writing when the ending consists of t alone; Ex. : et Skri(d)t a step, et Ri(d)t a ride ; but changed into t when the ending consists of t with a following vowel: god—gotte sig to regal one's self.]

111. d is mute in some words after r; the preceding vowel is usually long; Ex. : Jor(d) earth, Fjor(d) fjord, Gjœr(d)e fence, Or(d) word, Nor(d)mand (short o) Norwegian.

In the following words d is pronounced after r (the preceding vowel in that case is short): Bord border, Byrd birth, Fœrd voyage (but paafœr(d)e astir), Hjord herd, hœrde to harden, lœrd learned, Mord murder: Verden the world, jorde to inter, Norden the North, (but nor(d)enfra from the North, nor(d)enfields north of the mountains).

112. s is a voiceless open blade sound; the voiced (soft) s (z) of English and other languages does not exist in Norwegian; Ex. : se to see, lœse to read, Hus house.

113. sj or skj have about the same sound as English sh; Ex. : Sjö sea, sjelden seldom, Skjorte shirt, Skjört skirt. Be fore i and y this sound is written sk. Ex. : Ski Norwegian snowshoe, Sky cloud; also before e in the following words: Ske spoon, (at) ske to happen, maaske, kanske (also pronounced k) perhaps, Besked information, beskeden modest, skele to squint, Skelèt skeleton, (at) skeie (ud) to lead a dissolute life; before öi in: Sköite smack, Sköiter skates (but Sköi fun, Sköier mischiefmaker, with k).

The same sound may in foreign words be rendered by sch, sh, g, ch, j, s, according tho the spelling of the language from which the word is borrowed: Chef, Geni, Bagage, jaloux, Journal, Kalesche. Brosche brooch, Punch, Schak chess, March, Revision, Mission, Addition, Direktion, (but Kvotient pr. kvotsient in 3 syllables and Konsortium partnership, pr. konsortsium in 4 syllables).

114. l has about the same sound as in English; Ex. : lide to suffer, Laar thigh, Pil arrow, spille to play; for ll is in some words written ld (see § 109).

l is written but not pronounced before j in the words Lja or Ljaa scythe, Ljore opening in the roof for the smoke to pass out, Ljom echo, Ljan place near Christiania; furthermore in: Karl man, and its compounds (pronounced and often written Kar; Stakkar a wretch, Dan. Stakkel; but in Huskarlene the housecarles pr. l); and in skal shall, often pron. ska and til to often pron. te.

Note. After point r, l in the eastern part of Norway assumes a supradental character, being formed against the gums, and r is reduced to a gliding sound; Ex : Karl (name), farlig dangerous, Perle pearl.

115. In eastern Norway the Old Norse combination rð has developed into a peculiar sound of inverted r or l, being pronounced by inverting the tongue and raising the point up towards the hard palate and then bringing it forward with a smack. The inverted or “cacuminal” sound produced in this manner makes upon the foreigner the impression of being an r, while to the Norwegians it appears to be an l; it is called the thick l; Ex. : Svelvik (O. N. Sverðvik), name of a place. This sound is considered vulgar, but it is often used colloquially in Eastern Norway, even instead of common l; Ex.: Klasse class, Aal eel, Ola (name).

116. n like English n: nu now, Bön prayer, vœnne to accustom.

The sound of nn is written nd in a great many words (see § 109). Of words spelt with nn or n (if final) may be noted: Bönne bean, Bön prayer (plur. of both: Bönner, but Bönder peasants, with the same n-sound); en Finne a pimple, but at finde to find, at kunne to be able [but jeg kunde (nn) I could], Skin light, appearance (at skinne to shine), but Skind (nn) skin, Skinne rail, Vantro disbelief (but Vandfarve water color).

Note. When n is preceded by an r, then it in the eastern part of Norway assumes a supradental character, the r being reduced to a mere gliding sound. Other dental sounds are affected in the same way by a preceding r, and these combined sounds of r & following dental represent the same sounds that in the Sanskrit Grammar are called cerebral (murdhanja).

117. ng represent a single sound, the guttural nasal consonant, like English ng in singer; Ex. : synge to sing, tung heavy.

Before k the same sound is represented by n alone; Ex. : Tanke (ngk) thought, Bœnk bench.

The same is also sometimes the case before g in foreign words, ng thus representing the sound of ngg: Kongo, Ungarn Hungary; and in words of French origin also in other cases; Ex. : balancere (ngs) to balance. Sometimes also in compound words a k or g may affect a preceding dental n so as to make it guttural: Haan(d)klœ(d)e (ngk) towel; but as a rule both sounds remain the same as in the separate words; Angiver (n-j) informer, angaa(n-g) to concern. In some words of French origin ng is pronounced ngsj (sj representing the sound of Engl. sh, see § 113); Ex. : rangere pron. rangsjere, to rank, but tangere (ngg) to touch.

118. r in Norway as a rule is a trilled point consonant. Before a voice consonant or vowel it is voiced, before a voiceless consonant it is generally voiceless. It is formed by allowing the point of the tongue to vibrate against the gums while the breath of air passes trough. It is always distinctly pronounced, never modified like final r in English; Ex. : Ry fame, Ror rudder, höre to hear.

Note 1. In the south-western part of Norway is used an uvular r.

Note 2. The alveolar r exerts a peculiar influence on a following dental sound t, d, l, n, s (see §§ 114 note, 116 note). In polished language these supradental varieties of the front sounds as a rule are avoided after a short vowel as vulgar, except rs; Ex. : Vers verse (pron. almost versh), Person (pron. almost pershon).

119. kj is a medio-palatal fricative sound corresponding to German ch in ich. The English language has no corresponding sound although the middle sound produced in English between t and y in such combinations as not yet, don't you has a certain resemblance to it. The sound is produced by raising the middle of the tongue towards the palate without touching it, while at the same time the point of the tongue is lowered behind the lower teeth and the side edges of the tongue touch the second molars. The orthographic sign is kj except before i and y when it is k; Ex. : kjöre to drive, kjœr dear, Kirke church, Kys kiss. The sign of k represents this sound also before e in the words Kegle cone, Kemi chemistry, Kerub. (But Keiser emperor with k).

Note. The sound of kj is written tj in Tjeld oyster catcher (a bird), and Tjern a small lake, Tjor tether, Tjœre tar.

120. j is the voiced sound corresponding to the voiceless kj, pronounced like English y in yawn.

This sound is represented 1) by j, usually; Ex. : ja yes, jeg (jei) I, Jul Christmas, Mjö(d) mead, Linje line, tredje (also pron. tredde) third, Jode jew. 2) by g before i (except Jib jib, jibbe gybe) and sometimes before y; Ex. : gift married, gik went, gylden golden. (But Jyde Jutlander, Jylland Jutland. And in foreign words g may retain its proper sound before these vowels : Gigant, Ægypten, Religion; so also in Gyda woman's name) and sometimes in give (see § 140 c). 3) by gj sometimes before other vowels than the two above mentioned: gjalde to resound, Gjed (pron. je·t) goat, jeg gjor(d)e I did, Gjœld debt. 4) by hj in a few words; Hjalte hilt, ihjel to death, Hjelm helmet, Hjem Home, Hjemmel warrant, Hjerne brain, Hjalmar, Hjerte heart, Hjord herd, Hjort hart, Hjul wheel, Hjœlp help, Hjørne corner. 5) by lj in Ljaa, Ljore, Ljan (see § 114).

(For skj, sj and kj see §§ 113 & 119).

121. k has the sound of English k but more aspirated; not so much so, however, as in Danish. The letter k represents this sound before consonants (except j, see § 119), back vowels (a, o, n) and unstressed front and mid vowels (ə, i) and at the end of words ; Ex. : kaste to throw, Klo claw, Knœ knee (take care not to make the k mute as in English!), Laks salmon, like to like, Viking, Raak lane of water (cut in the ice), Tak (kk) thanks.

Note. When a word is spelt with k after a long vowel it is a sign that the word is originally Norwegian and does not occur in the Danish language. (See § 122).

122. The sound of k is in many words represented in writing by the letter g; 1) after a short vowel before s or t; 2) after a long vowel at the end of words or before ə; Ex. : 1) Slags (aks) kind (but Slags of a battle), Krigsflaade (ks) navy, Rigs(ks)-advokat attorney general, bugsere (ks) to tow, Jagt (kt) chase, lagt (kt) laid, Digt (kt) poem, sligt (kt) (neut.) such, styyt (kt) ugly, stegt (kt) ptc. fried, Vœgt (kt) weight; 2) Ager (k) field, bag (k) behind, Bager (k) baker, bruge (k) to use, Bøg (k) beech, Dug (k) table cloth, Hage (k) chin, Høg (k) hawk, Lage (k) brine, Lagen (k) (bed)-sheet (but Lager (g) stock in store), Leg (k) play, lege (k) to play, myg (k) pliable [but Myg (gg) mosquito], syg (k) sick, ryge (k) to smoke (intr.), röge (k) to smoke (trans.), Spiger (k) nail, Tag (k) roof, grasp, rig (k) rich, lig (k) adj. like, Forlig (k or g) agreement, forlige (k or g) to reconcile [but Forligelseskommission (g) commissioners of arbitration], Taage (k) fog.

Note. Often in these words the pronunciations as g and k interchange with each other, the former being considered more polite and appropriate for elevated style.

In the following words there are double forms (with k and g) partly with a different meaning.

with k	with g
Bog book pr. bo·k.	Bog pr. Båg more polite.
Flag sometimes pron. flak in Isflag flake of Ice, Skjorteflag (k or g) shirtlap.	Flag (a·g or agg) national ensign.
klog (pr. klo·k) sagacious; han er ikke rigtig klog (k) he is not quite in his right senses; jeg er lige (k) klog (k) I am just as wise as I used to be.	en klog (åg) Kone a wise woman (i. e. on supernatural things); det er meget klogt gjort that is a very clever move, af Skade bliver man klog damage makes wise.

Rige (k) empire, et stort Rige (k) a great empire.	Naturrigerne (g) the kingdoms of nature, Guds Rige (g) the kingdom of God, det tyske Rige the German empire, Frankrige (g) France (but Sverige pron. Sverie or Sverje, Sweden).
Sag (k) matter, en farli(g) Sag (k) a dangerous thing, det er ingen Sag (k) it is a very easy matter, sagsöge (k, k) to sue.	Sagen the matter, saglig pertinent (strictly to the point), Sagförer lawyer.
Smag (k) taste, en ubehageli(g) Smag (k) i Munden (nn) a disagreeable taste in the mouth; det har Mersmag (k) it has a morish taste.	Smag (g) taste, god Smag good taste, smagfuld (g, ll) tasteful, elegant, Smagen er forkskjellig taste differs.
vaage (k) to watch; vaage (k) over en syg to watch a sick person; Vaage (k) -kone a sick-nurse.	vaager (g) og beder watch and pray.
Aag (sometimes pron. åk) yoke, oxbow.	gaa under Aaget (g) to walk under the yoke; mit Aag (g) er gavnli(gt), my yoke is useful.

123. k is written but not pronounced in the words: Au(k)tion, Mul(k)t fine, mul(k)tere to fine, Engels(k)mand Englishman; sometimes k is also dropped in pronouncing Frans(k)mand Frenchman, and always in Frans(k)brö(d) French rolls.

Note 1. For k being the orthographic sign of kj see § 119.

Note 2 There are still many people who instead of ks write œ; Ex. : sexten or seksten pron. seisten see § 94.

Note 3. The sound of k is still sometimes written q before u, pron. kv: Quadrat square, as a rule now written Kvadrat, Aquavit (pron. akkevit) Norwegian gin, now as a rule written Akevit.

124. g has the sound of English g in “give”, “go”; Ex. : gaa to go, gli(de) to slide, Gnier miser, grave to dig, jage to hunt, Norge Norway, Dag day, Sprog (åg) language, Tog (åg) train, Svœlg gullet, Sorg grief, Helg holidays, Elg elk, Talg tallow.

Note 1. In some of these words, after l and r, g is sometimes pronounced as j, but this pronunciation is considered vulgar.

Note 2. For g as the sign of k see § 122 note; for the pronunciation varying between g and k see § 122 note; for g and gj being signs of j see § 120, 2 and 3; gid would, o that, gide to prevail upon one's self to, are pronounced with g before i.

For g representing i as second part of diphthongs see §§ 94 and 96. For g representing the sound of sj in foreign words see § 113.

Note 3. g sometimes before n represents the sound of ng: Agn pron. angn, bait, Magnus pron. Mangnus or Magnus, Vogn pron. vongn. So also in the western and northern part of Norway in Egn, Lögn etc. (see § 94 and 96).

125. g is written but not pronounced:

1) in adjectives and adverbs ending in in—ig (lig) : storagti(g) haughty, fœrdi(g) ready, aldri(g) never: also when the plural ending e is added g remains mute; Ex. : mœrkeli(g)e Ting strange things; and if the neutral ending t is added that also is mute: Huse(t) er fœrdi(gt) the house is ready.

2) after the diphthongs ei and au: sei(g) tough, Dei(g) dough, Bau(g) bow.

3) in the word o(g) and, and in some compounds of Daggodda(g) good day (how do you do), Manda(g) Monday, Tirsda(g) Tuesday etc.; sometimes in Ru(g) (or rugg).

4) after a long vowel before l: Fu(g)l bird, Ku(g)le ball, Pry(g)l thrashing (but g always pronounced before l after a short vowel: Ex. : Hagl hail).

5) sometimes after l and r before an unstressed vowel: imorges (rr) this morning, imor(g)en to-morrow. Sometimes the meaning changes according as g is pronounced or not:

g not pronounced:	g pronounced:
fölge (ll) to follow;	en Fölge (g) a consequence,
et Fölge (ll) a company.	fölgende following, Fölgesœtning consequent (sentence), fölgevœrdig worth following.
sœlge (ll) to sell, sol(g)te sold.	Sœlger (lg) a salesman.
spörge (rr) to ask, Spör(g)smaal question.	spörgende inquiring, Spörgesœtning interrogative sentence.

126. h has before vowels the sound of English h; Ex. : han he, Haab hope, holde to hold, hilse to greet.

Note. A mute h is written before j and v in the following words: Hjerne brain, Hjelm helmet, ihjel to death, Hjerte heart, Hjort hart, Hjord herd, Hjem home, Hjul wheel, Hjælp help, Hjörne corner, hva(d) what, hvem, hvo who, hvis whose, if, hvilken which, hvor where (and compounds thereof hvorfor why etc.), Hval whale, Hvalp whelp, hvas sharp, hvæsse to whet, Hvede wheat, Hveps wasp, hver each, Hverda(g) week day, hverken neither, Hverv task, hverve to enlist, hvid white, hvidte to whiten, Hvil rest, hvine to shriek, Hvirvel whirlpool, hviske to whisper, hvisle to hiss, Hvitting whiting, Hvælv vault, hvæse to hiss.

Note. In the western and northern part of Norway the pronominal words spelt with hv are regularly pronounced with k: kem, ka etc., while some others are pronounced with kv: kvass, kvit, kvalp etc.

This pronunciation is not used by polite society, but the traveller may come across it.

117. x in some foreign words represents the sound of ks (many people still use this sign to express the same combination of sounds also in domestic words, see § 123 note 2); Ex. : orthodox, Oxyd, extraordinœr, Examen. At the beginning of words of Greek origin it is usually pronounced s: Xerxes (pr. serses), Xylograf.

128. z is also used in some foreign words to represent the sound of s: Zebra, Zelot.

129. e is used in foreign words representing the sound of s; Ex. : Ceder cedar, Centaur, Ceremoni, Cigar, musicere to make music. In foreign words where it formerly was used to express the sound of k it is now the rule to write k. Greek proper nouns are now usually written and pronounced with k: Kimon, Kyros.

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NORWEGIAN ACCENT.

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130. In Norwegian speech a distinction must be made between the accent-stress and the musical accent.

131. The accent stress as a rule rests upon the first syllable, which at the same time generally is the radical syllable. A secondary stress is sometimes, especially in compound words, laid on o following syllable, i. e. in most cases on the first syllable of the second part of the compound; Ex. : Bo‘r(d)tœ’ppe table cover, La‘mpeskjæ’rm lampshade, Gla‘sme’ster glazier. (‘ denotes primary accent, ’ secondary accent).

132. The accent strees is on another syllable than the first.

1) in some foreign words; Ex. : Genera‘l, Cogna‘c Apostro‘f, Apothe‘k.

2) in words (of German origin) with the prefixes be-, ge-, er-, which never have the stress on the first syllable; Ex. : begri‘be to understand, Gevœ‘r shot-gun, Gema‘l consort, erfa‘re to learn, bekje‘nde to acknowledge, etc.

Note. In vulgar speech these words are accented on the first syllable; bearbei‘de to adapt has usually the stress on the first syllable when meaning to belabor.

3) in some words with the prefix for representing the German ver; Ex. : Forfa‘tter author, forgaa‘sig to offend, forfö‘re to seduce, Fornu‘ft reason; but: fo‘ranstalte to cause to be done, fo‘rarbeide to manufacture, Fo‘rbud prohibition (but forby‘de to prohibit), Fo‘rbund alliance (but forbi‘nde sig to agree), Fo‘rhold relation (but forho'lde sig to behave), Fo‘rlag publishing, Fo‘rlœgger publisher (but forlœ‘gge to publish), Fo‘rmue competency, Fo‘rsög attemt (but forsö‘ge to try), Fo‘rsvar defence (but forsva‘re to defend, Forsva‘rer defender). When for represents the preposition for (Germ. für, vor, Eng. fore) then it has the stress: Fo‘rbön intercession, Fo‘rbjerg promuntory, Fo‘rgaard fore court, Fo‘rhæng curtain, Fo‘rtand foretooth, Fo‘rnavn Christian name, Fo‘rfald impediment (but forfa‘lden decayed).

4) words with the negative prefix u (Eng. un-, in-) as a rule have the stress on the first syllable; Ex. : U‘naade disgrace; but adjectives ending in -elig and those ending in -lig which are derived from verbs and denote a feasibility have the stress on that syllable of the second part of the compound, which had the accent before the composition took place; Ex. : ubeha‘gelig disagreeable, umu‘lig impossible, usaa‘rlig invulnerable, ugjö‘rlig not feasible. Also a great many other adjectives in -lig and -ig have the stress on the second part of the compound: uanstæ‘dig indecent, usœdva‘nlig unusual, uhe‘ldig unfortunate, ua‘gtet although, but u‘farlig not dangerous, u‘personlig impersonal, u‘naturlig unnatural or unatu‘rlig.

5) The suffixes -inde and -ri generally have the stress: Lœreri‘nde (lady) teacher, Generali‘nde general's wife, Hykleri‘ hypocrisy, Tyveri‘ theft, (but Svi‘neri and Gri‘seri piggery, filthiness take the stress on the first syllable). The suffixes -else and -ning usually when added to compound words cause the accent to be moved forward to the second part of the compound; Ex. : mis‘unde to envy, but Misu‘ndelse envy, Tilvœ‘relse existence, Tilskik‘kelse dispensation (by providence) but til‘skikke to dispense, Indle‘dning introduction but i‘ndlede to introduce); in A‘fsœttelse removal, U‘dförelse execution, O‘versœttelse translation, A‘fledning derivation, U‘dtapning draining and some others the accent is on the first syllable. Some derivative adjectives with -lig, -ig (cfr. No. 4) and -som have the stress on another syllable than the first (most of these words are of German origin); Ex. : opri‘gtig sincere, œrvœ‘rdig reverend, forsœ‘tlig intentional (but Fo‘rsœt intention), veldœ‘dig charitable, alvo‘rlig serious (but A‘lvor earnest).

6) note the following words: Taller‘ken plate, Vidun‘der miracle, undta‘gen except, Hense‘ende regard, vedkom‘mende in for mit Vedkom‘mende as far as I am concerned (but ved‘kommende pertaining to).

133. Compound words as a rule have the principal stress on their first part (see § 131); Ex. : Ho‘vedpine (pron. Ho‘depine) headache, Hus‘hovme’ster majordomus. But in some words the stress is on the second part of the composition:

1) in some titles and geographical names; Ex. : Oberstlöi‘tnant lieutenant colonel, Stifta‘mtmand high civil official, Kristianssa‘nd, Fredriksha‘ld (but Fre‘drikstad), Ostin‘dien East India; furthermore Sydo‘st southeast, Nordve‘st north west etc. Velbaa‘renhed lordship (and other words composed with vel-: Velgje‘rning deed of charity, Velanstœ‘ndighed propriety, velsma‘gende savory, velsi‘gne to bless, Velsi‘gnelse blessing (but Vel‘levnet luxurious living, Vel‘magt vigor, vel‘skabt well shaped etc.), Skoma‘ger shoemaker, Budei‘e milkmaid, Smaagut‘ter little boys, Smaapi‘ger little girls (but Smaa‘jenter little girls, has the stress on the first part); some words composed with halv half : halvanden one and a half, halvsjette five and a half; Aa‘rhundrede century and Aa‘rtusinde milennium as a rule have the accent on their first part (aar) but may also have it on the second.

2) compounds the first part of which are prepositions have the stress on the first part when the word as a whole belongs to the same class of words as its second part, but on the second part when this is governed by the preposition; Ex : O‘verhoved (pron. O‘verhode) chief, headman, but overho‘vedet (pr. overho‘de) upon the whole, tilsjö‘s on sea, tilla‘nds on land, igaar‘ yesterday, imor‘gen to-morrow, For‘sommer spring, For‘tid past tense, but forti‘den for the time being. Obs. Efterret‘ning news, but U‘nderretning or Underre‘tning information, forbi‘ by, but fo‘rbigaa to pass by.

des is unstressed when indicating a comparison: desvœ‘rre the worse, alass, desme‘re the more etc.; but when it represents the old gen. of demonstrative pronoun ruled by the second part of the composition it has the stress: des‘aarsag on that account, des‘angaaende thereabout, des‘foruden moreover besides that (but desu‘den besides, desforme‘delst for that reason). i in adverbial compounds never has the stress: imo‘d against, igje‘n again, ibla‘ndt among; saa is stressed when indicating manner: saa‘lydende reading as follows, saa‘kaldet so called; but unstressed when indicating degree: saasna‘rt as soon, saafre‘mt provided, saavi‘dt as far as.

Kanhœ‘nde perhaps, maaske‘ (pr. maasje‘ or maaske‘) perhaps; but ka‘nske (pr. ka‘nskə or ka‘nsjə) perhaps.

134. Different from the stress accent is the musical accent. There are two kinds of musical accent employed in single words, the monosyllabic and the dissyllabic. The former is used in (original) monosyllables and in so far corresponds with the Danish “Stødtone” (Glottal catch), while the dissyllabic accent belongs to (originally) dissyllabic or polysyllabic words.

135. The monosyllabic accent begins in a very low tone and ascends to a somewhat higher pitch, about a third or a fourth. This somewhat higher pitch is the regular base of the voice.

136. The dissyllabic accent begins in a strong medium tone, descends about a third and ascends in the weak final syllable again about a fourth.

[135. From professor Johan Storm's “Englische Philologie” are taken the following “tunes” of words with monosyllabic and dissyllabic accent. As many originally monosyllabic words in the present language have two syllables, there will among the words with monosyllabic accent be found many dissyllables.

Eastern Norway (Christiania).

I. Monosyllabic accent.

jā. sō’-lən. or jā sō’lən. b’-kə-nə.

II. Dissyllabic (compound) accent.

mā̊’-nan or mā̊’nan. mæn’-nə-skə-nə or mæn’-nə-skə-nə.

Western Norway (Bergen).

I. Monosyllabic accent. II. Dissyllabic (compound) accent.

jāå sō’-lən. mā̊’-nən.

(ja yes, Solen the sun, Bögerne the books, Maanen the moon, Menneskene the human beings)].

138. By their different musical accent are distinguished many pairs of otherwise consonous words. Monosyllabic words with the affixed definite article are, as far as the accent is concerned, considered as monosyllables.

Simple or monosyllabic accent (‘)	Compound or dissyllabic accent (’)
Amen (pron. am‘mən), amen.	Ammen (pron. am’men) the west nurse.
Bönder (pr. Bønnər) plasants.	Bönner beans (sing. Bønne), Bönner prayers (sing. Bøn) pron. Bøn’nər.
Bund-en (‘nn) the bottom.	bunden (’nn) tied.
Dry-et (‘) the animal.	dyre expensive (plur.).
Haar-et (haa‘ret or haa‘re(t) the hair).	haar’et hairy.
Kok‘ken the cook (male, indefinite: Kok).	Kok’ke-n the cook (woman).
Lom‘men the loon (Colymbus arcticus, ind. Lom).	Lomm-en (’) the pocket.
Sval‘-en the balcony.	Svale-n the swallow.
Ul(d)en the wool.	ul(d)en woolly.
Jægar (name).	Jæger (hunter).
Möller (name).	Möller (miller).
(jeg) bærer (I) carry, (jeg) drager (I) draw.	Bærer carrier, (en) Drager (a) porter.
(jeg) lægger (I) lay.	Legger (pr. lægger) calves (of the legs).
(jeg) löber (p) (I) run.	Löber (p) runner.
(jeg) læser (I) read.	Læsar a reader.
(jeg) piber (pipər) (I) pipe.	Piber (pipər) pipes.
(jeg) skriver (I) write.	Skriver penman.
(jeg) sætter (I) set.	Sætter typesetter.
(jeg) sœl(g)er (I) sell.	Sœlger (g sounded) a seller.

The present tense of the strong verbs have the simple tone, that of the weak verbs the compound tone. The plural form of a great many nouns which in the old language formed their plural in —r still retains the simple tone, while those words which in the old language formed their plural in —ar and —ir have the compound tone.

139. The musical accent of the words may be modified by the sentence or the tonic accent. Thus e. g. a gradual raising of the pitch of the voice through the whole sentence indicates a question or something unfinished, where a continuation of the sentence may be looked for.

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ABBREVIATIONS.

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140. In colloquial language there are used a great many abbreviations which do not occur in the more solemn language used on the pulpit, in recitals etc.

These abbreviations chiefly consist in the dropping of the syllables de, ge(ke), ve, especially in verbs; most of the words affected by these abbreviations are in some figurative or not very frequent meanings exempt therefrom. Especially may be noticed that the abbreviation as a rule does not take place in pres. partcp. (ending in -ende), and before suffixes commencing with -e, -er, -en, -else etc.) and in pres. and inf. pass. (ending in -es).

a) abbreviations consisting in the omission of de:

de dropped.	de retained.
be(de) to ask, pray, also be(de) til Gud pray to God.	Bededag day of prayer, Tilbedelse adoration.

de dropped.	de retained.
blö(d)e to bleed.	mit Hjærte blöder my heart bleeds.
bry(de) (in past tense brydde) to trouble, bry sit Hode med (spelt: bryde sit Hoved) to trouble one's head about something.	bryde to break (a wholly different word, pres. tense pron. bryte, past tense bröd (pron. brøt).
bry(de) sig om to mind.
bry(de) en Gut med en Jente to tease a boy about a girl.
by(de) to offer, by(de) paa noget to give a bid for something or to invite to partake of something.	byde command, Loven byder the law commands, sælge til höistbydende to sell to the highest bidder.
fö(de) to bear (give birth) and to feed (especially in the abbreviation the rule in this latter meaning), sultefö sine Kreaturer to starve one's cattle.	du skal föde en Sön thou shallt bear a son, Födeland country of birth. Födemiddel aliment.
gli(de) to glide.	Glidebane a slide.
glæ(de) to gladden jeg glæ(de)r mig til de(t) I anticipate it with pleasure.	Glæde joy, de(t) glæder mig at höre I am glad o hear it.
klæ(de) to dress, at klæ(de) paa en to dress somebody, det klæ(de)r Dem godt it fits you well, Klæ(de)r clothes, Haandklæ(de) towel, Klæ(de)sbörste clothes brush.	beklæde et Embede to fill an office, Klæde cloth, sort Klæde black broadcloth, Ligklæde pall.
la(de) et Gevær to load a gun.	Ladested small town (without a city charter).
la(d) det vœre let that be, i. e. don't do that (see § 106).	lade to leave undone.

de dropped.	de retained.
li(de) to suffer, jeg li(de)r ondt I suffer hardships.	lide af en Sygdom to suffer from a disease, Lideformen the passive voice, lide Skibbrud pass sin Tro to make shipwreck concerning one's faith.
det li(de)r langt paa Dag it is passing late into the day.	Tiden lider time is passing.
ri(de) or ri(d)e to ride on horseback, en Ri(de)tur a horseback ride.	Berider a horse trainer, Ridekunst the art of riding.
raa(de) to advise, Mennesket spaar, Gud raar man proposes, God disposes.	forraade to betray, tilraade to counsel, Omraade territory, Raaderum free scope.
ska(de) to injure, de(t) kan ikke ska(de) it can do no harm.	skade is the more common form in polite language; det skader ikke at forsöge there is no harm done in trying.
	af Skade bli(ve)r man klog injury makes wise.
smede, pron. smi, to forge, at smi Jern to forge iron.	man maa smede, mens Jernet er varmt you must strike while the iron is hot.
spre(de) to spread, Epidemien spre(de)r sig over hele Byen the epidemic spreads all over the town.	jeg skal sprede mine Fiender I shall scatter my enemies, du maa sörge for at adsprede ham you must take care to divert his thoughts.
stri(de) to strive, at stri(de) med noget to strive with something, at stri(de) imod to be opposed to.	det strider mod Fornuften it is against all reason, at stride den sidste Strid to fight the last battle, to die.

de dropped.	de retained.
træ(de) to stop, at træ(de) en paa Foden to step on somebody's toes, træ(d) af retire!	træde i ens Fodspor to follow one's example, det optræder i Form af it appears in the shape of; at tiltræde et Embede to enter upon an office.
bety(de) to signify, hvad bety(de)r dette? what is the meaning of this?	at betyde en noget to give somebody something to understand, at tyde en Indskrift to decipher an inscription, antyde to intimidate, hentyde to allude.
va(de) to wade.	Vadefu(g)l wading bird, Vadested ford.
Bro(de)r brother, Fa(de)r father, Mo(de)r mother when signifying the degree of relationship; also in compounds: Farbror father's brother, Farfar father's father, Farmor, Morfar, Mormor and Morbror, Brorskab (p): der er intet Brorskap i Kortspil relationship (brotherhood) is of no avail in cards.	Broder, Fader, Moder figuratively: en Broder i Aanden a brother in the spirit, Embedsbroder a brother officer, Fostbroder sworn brother, Brodermord fratricide, Broderkys brotherly kiss, broderlig fraternal, den hellige Fader the holy father, Fadermord parricide, Fadermordere sideboards, Faderhjærte paternal heart, hun er allerede Moder she is already a mother, Moderglæde maternal joy.
Sadel saddle, pron. Sal in Sa(de)lmager a saddler, upholsterer, in other cases usually pronounced Sale: sidde fast i Salen to have a firm seat.

b) abbreviations by dropping ge.

ge dropped.	ge retained
dra(ge) to draw, dra(ge) Pusten to draw the breath, dra(ge) Kjendsel paa to recognize, dra(ge) en Slutning to draw a conclusion, bedra(ge) to defraud, jeg har draget (pr. drad) ham hele Vejen I have been dragging him all the way.	drage intr. to depart, med draget Svœrd with drawn sword, jeg andrager om Udsættelse I apply for a respite, Tildragelse happening (and other derivatives).
si(ge) or si(g)e to say, pres. tense always si(ge)r, past. sa(gde), imp. si(g), passive si(g)es.	sige: 120, siger og skriver et hundrede og tyve 120 — say one hundred and twenty —, efter sigende according to report, Frasigelse resignation (and other derivatives).
ta(ge) to take, past tense tog pron. tok or to, imper. ta, ptcp. tagen, taget pron. coloquially tatt.	tage sometimes in religious diction and always in some derivatives: Antagelse supposition, Fritagelse exemption, etc.
Morgen pron. mår’n morning, imår’n to-morrow, imorges pron. imårres early this morning.	Morgenstund har Guld i Mund early to rise makes a man wealthy, Morgenstjerne (a name).
no(ge)n, no(g)en no(g)e(t) anybody, anything.	nogenlunde fairly, nogensinde at any time (sometimes pron. någen—).

c) abbreviations by dropping ve.

ve dropped	ve retained
bli(ve) to become, remain, past tense ble(v), ptcp. blevet (pron. blit).	blive in pres. ptcp. and some derivatives.

ve dropped.	ve retained.
fly(ve) or fly(v)e to flie, i fly(v)ende Fart in a flying hurry, paa flyende Flœkken (somewh. vulg.) right here on the spot.	med flyvende Faner with banners flying, den flyvende Hollænder the flying Dutchman, en Flyvemaskine a flying machine, et Flyveblad a pamphlet.
gi(ve) to give, gi(v) mig det give it me, prtcp. givet pr. gir (in these abbreviated colloquial forms g is pronounced as j (see § 118, 2).	der gives Folk som there are people who, anse noget for givet consider something as given, en given Störrelse a given quantity (in the unabridged forms g usually is pronounced as g).
ha(ve) to have, pres. written and pronounced jeg har, past tense spelt havde pron. hadde, prtc. havt pron hatt.	havende having, passive haves or ha(v)es.
Hoved pron. hode head: et godt Hode a clever person, ondt i Hode(t) pains in the head, Hodepine, Hodeverk headache (always spelt Hovedpine etc.)	Hoved chief: Hovedmanden the head, the leader, Hovedværk principal work.

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141. Vowels are long 1) in monosyllables when ending the word; Ex.: gaa to go, Ko cow. (Nu now has long or short vowel according as it has the sentence stress or not: nu‘kommer jeg here I am, nu kom‘mer jeg I am coming now). 2) in the accented syllable of dissyllables and polysyllables when followed by a single consonant with following vowel: læ·se to read, Prø·ve test, Naa·de grace. Exceptions: Abor perch (pron. abbor), Furu fir tree (pron. furru), Lever (vv) liver, Moro (rr) fun, Niding (dd) villain, traitor.

142. Vowels are short when followed by two or more consonants or a double consonant; Ex.: hoppe to jump, mörk dark, mange many.

Note 1. Before st a vowel may be short or long; Ex.: long: Bæst wild beast, mest most; short: Hest horse, Vest waistcoat. If the t belongs to an ending of inflection, then a preceding long vowel as a rule retains its length: hæ·st hoarse (neut. of hæs), blæ·st prtcp. of blæse to blow (but Blœ·st, wind), læ·st prtc. of læse to read; in the same manner a vowel is treated before l, n, r, with following inflective t: fø·lte past tense of føle to feel, gu·lt yellow, neut. of gul, me·nte past tense of mene to mean, hø·rt prtcp. of høre to hear.

Note 2. Before r(d) the vowel is long (see § 109); Ex.: J·r(d) earth etc; but Sværd sword , Hjord herd with short vowel and pronounced d.

Note 3. Before dl, dr, gr, pr and tr the preceding vowel as a rule is long, but may also be short; Ex.: long: adle to ennoble, bedre better, magre lean (plur.), kapre to capture, (make a prize of). Theatret the theater; short: snadre to cackle, pludre to jabber.

143. In monosyllables ending in a single consonant the vowel may be long or short. It is as a rule long before b, g, d, whether they be pronounced as written or as p, k, t (or mute d); Ex.: Haab hope, Tog (å) expedition, Bad bath, Gab (p) gap, Tag (k) roof, bag (k) behind, lad (t) lazy.

Note. Short is the vowel in some words ending in one of the above mentioned consonants (the consonant in that case being pronounced long); Ex.: Laag cover, pron. låkk (but Öjenlaag eyelid as wiitten), Leg, gg, leg, Væg, gg, wall, Ryg, gg, back, tig, gg, imper. of tigge to beg, lig, gg, imper. of ligge to lie, Lab, bb, paw, Flab, bb, chaps.

144. A vowel followed by a single l, n, r, s, may be long or short, the consonant in the latter case being pronounced long; Ex.: Hul, ll, hole, but hu·l hollow, for, rr, for, but fo·r travelled, vis, ss, certain, but vi·s wise, Me·n injury, but men, nn, but; a vowel followed by a single m is short except in E·m vapor.

145. A vowel before a single final k, p, t as a rule is short, the consonant then being pronounced long ; Ex.: Tak, kk, thanks, Hop, pp, jump, Hat, tt, hat.

Exceptions are some specific Norwegian words which have never been accepted into the Danish literature and therefore never have been spelled in accordance with Danish pronunciation: Aat food of fishes, Laat sound (=Danish Lyd), laak (being) in poor healt, Raak a lane of water through the ice, Löp a kind of wooden box.

Note. In compound words the component parts retain their original quantity; Ex.: Tog-tabel a Railroad time table, Mod-stand (pr. Mot-stand) opposition.

146. A consonant is always long after a stressed short vowel; when an unstressed vowel follows then the consonant is written double; Hul hole, plur. Huller, Suppe soup, Smör butter (Smörret the butter).

Note 1. It will be seen from the above examples that if during the inflection of words ending in a single consonant with a preceding short vowel the consonant comes before a termination commencing in a vowel then the consonant is written double.

Note 2. Some foreign words retain their original spelling but are pronounced in accordance with the above rule; Ex.: Artikel (pr. artik-kel) article, Amen (pr. Ammen), Titel (pr. Tittel) title. A consonant written double after an unstressed vowel is pronounced short; Ex.: Tallerken (pr. Tale‘rken) plate, Parallel (pr. Parale‘ll).

Note 3. A consonant is not written double before another consonant even if it be long; Ex.: gammel old, plur. gamle (pr. gammle); except in compound words: Ex.: Manddrab homicide (Mand-drab). A long consonant is not as a rule written double at the end of words, except in a few cases to avoid ambiguity; Ex.: viss certain, to distinguish it from vi·s wise.