A Danish and Dano-Norwegian Grammar/Nouns
NOUNS.
GENDER OF THE NOUNS.
156. The genders of the nouns are only of importance syntactically, in so far as the adjective or the article assume different forms in conformity with the gender of the noun qualified by them. No generally binding rules can be given for the genders of the nouns in Danish-Norwegian, but the following intimations may be of some help:
1) Most words denoting living beings are of common gender. En Mand a man, en Hest a horse, en Hund a dog, en Ko a cow, en Flue a fly.
Note 1. Some nouns comprising the natural masculine and feminine genders are neuter: Kvæget, the cattle; Folket the people (also the compounds: et Mandfolk, et Kvindfolk a male, female individual), Mennesket man (generally), et Dyr an animal, et Svin a hog, et Faar a sheep, et Æsil a donkey. Also several words indicating the young ones of animals: et Lam a lamb, et Föl a colt, et Kid a kid.
2) Names of trees, plants and stones are as a rule of common gender: Bögen the beech, en Eg an oak, Rugen the rye, Graniten the granite, Flinten the flint.
Note 2. Neuter are: et Blad a leaf, et Bær a berry; (but in compounds common gender in Norwegian when used collectively; Ex.: Multebæren staar röd over hele Myren the cloudberry stands red all over the bog), et Græs a grass, et Straa a straw, et Træ a tree.
3) Names of seasons, months, days and other divisions of time are mostly common gender. Hösten the fall, Vinteren the winter, Dagen the day.
Note 3. Aaret the year, et Dögn day & night, et Minut a minute (but paa Minuten this very minute).
4) Names of wind and weather: Östenvinden the East wind, Sneen the snow, Stormen the storm. (But Hagl hail, may be c. and n. and Regn rain is in Norway usually n., Vejret the weather).
5) Names of rivers and lakes: den blaa Donau the blue D., Rhinen the Rhine, den grönne Gjendin the green G.
6) Names of sciences: Filologien, Medicinen, Mathematiken.
157. 1) Most collective nouns and names of substances are of neuter gender: Træet the wood, Blyet the lead, Jernet the iron, Staalet the steel. But Malmen the ore, Ulden the wool, Melken the milk, Vinen the wine, and others.
2) Names af countries and cities: det lille Danmark the little Denmark, det mægtige Rom the mighty R.
3) Names of mountains: det höje Mont Blanc the high M. B., det ildsprudende Ætna the fire spouting Æ.
Note. Names of letters are in Denmark usually of neuter, in Norway of common gender: et stort (Nor. en stor) A a capital A. Also in Denmark et Bogstav a letter, in Norway en Bogstav. Names of languages are of common gender when combined with the post-positive article. Fransken the French language, Græsken Greek; but paa godt Norsk in good Norwegian.
158. The following nominal suffixes form words af common gender: 1) -hed, -inde, -ing, (-ling, -ning) -er (nomina agentis), -en (nomina actionis), -ske, -dom; Ex.: Storhed greatness, Lærerinde (lady) teacher, Stilling position, Virkning effect, Gjæsling gosling, Beiler suitor, Vaklen vacillation, Barndom childhood.
2) as a rule -sel, -else, -e (in derivatives of adjectives), -d, -t, -st,; Færdsel traffic (but et Fængsel prison, et Stængsel bar, et Bidsel a bit, bridle), Förelse guidance (but et Spögelse a ghost, et Værelse a room), Styrke strenght, Höjde height, (but Mörket the darkness), Byrd birth, Færd behavior, Kunst art, Magt power (but et Skridt a step).
3) Foreign words ending in -ion, -isme, -tet, -ur, -us: Kommunionen, Radikalismen, en Kalamitet (but Universitetet), en Kultus, en Habitus, Kulturen (but et Kreatur); Diktatur may be used both as c. and n.
159. 1) Nouns having the same form as the stem of verbs are usually neuter; Ex.: Badet the bath (bade to bathe), Kaldet the call (kalde to call), Raabet the cry (raabe to cry).
Note. This rule does not apply in cases where the verb is derived from the corresponding noun (although, of course, also in that case the noun may be neuter); thus we have en Dröm a dream (at drömme to dream), en Leg a play (at lege to play), Trösten the comfort (at tröste to comfort). Also Drik drink, Grav grave, Hjœlp help, Straf punishment, Strid strife, Törst thirst are common gender, and so are words ending in -gt as Frygten the fright (at frygte to fear), and those in -ang, to which correspond verbs in -inge (ynge), Sangen the song (at synge to sing), Klangen the sound (at klinge to sound).
2) The following suffixes as a rule form words of neuter gender: -dömme, -ende, -maal, -ri, -skab; med mit Vidende with my knowledge, (but i en Henseende in one respect, denne Tidende this news, en Tiende a tithe), Kongedömmet the kingdom, et Spörgsmaal a question, Tyveriet the theft, Bageriet baker's shop, mit Kjendskab my knowledge, Ægteskabet marriage (but derivatives of adjectives are of common gender: Troskaben the faithfulness, Ondskaben the wickedness).
3) Foreign words ending in -iv, -ment, -om, -um are neuter; et Komplement (but en Kompliment); et Ultimatum, et Arkiv, et Axiom.
160. Compound words have the gender of the last component part: en Bordplade a table slab, et Hesteben a horse's leg.
Exceptions: En Ödeland a spendthrift, en Graaskjæg a greybeard, et Folkefærd a race, et Gjenfærd a ghost, et Vidnesbyrd a testimony, dette Perlemo(de)r this mother-of-pearl, Brændevinet the brandy, Forskjellen the difference (but Grændseskjellet the border line).
161. Some words imply a different meaning according as they are used in common gender or neuter. In other cases originally different words have the same sound, but disagree in gender.
| common gender | neuter |
| Arken the ark. | et Ark a sheet (of paper). |
| en Bid (Norw. Bit, Bete) a bit, piece. | et Bid (dd) a bite. |
| en Bo (in compounds Nabo etc. a neighbor). | et Bo an estate. |
| en Brug a custom. | et Brug (Norw.) establishment, concern. |
| en Buk a he-goat. | et Buk a bow. |
| Felten the campaign. | Feltet the field, sphere. |
| en Frö a frog. | et Frö a seed. |
| en Fyr a fellow, chap. | et Fyr a light-house. |
| en Fölge a consequence. | et Fölge a retinue. |
| Lejen the rent. | Lejet the couch. |
| en Lem a trap. | et Lem a member. |
| en Lod share, lot. | et Lod a weight. |
| en Nögle a key. | et Nögle (D.) a ball (of yarn) |
| en Raad (in compounds: Statsraad, etc.) a councillor. | et Raad a council, advice. |
| common gender | neuter |
| Rimen the hoar frost. | Rimet the rhyme. |
| Risen the rice. | Riset the fagots, rod. |
| en Segl (D.) a sickle. | et Segl a seal (also et Sejl a sail). |
| en Skrift a (hand) writing. | et Skrift a writing, a book. |
| en Spand (D., et Spand N.) a pail. | et Spand a span, a team. |
| en Stift a tack. | et Stift a diocese. |
| en Söm a seam. | et Söm (D., en Söm N.) a nail. |
| en Ting a thing. | et Thing (Ting) assembly. |
| en Tryk a print. | et Tryk (D., N. et Var) a cover. |
| en Vœrge a guardian. | et Vœrge a weapon. |
| en Væv a tissue. | noget Væv nonsense. |
| Vœlde power (i al sin Vœlde in all his might). | Vœlde (N. in compounds Enevœldet the absolute monarchy; D. Enevœlden). |
| en Æsel (D., et Æ. N.) an ass. | et Æsel a donkey. |
In some words the gender is not quite fixed, so they sometimes appear as neuter, at other times as of common gender. Ex.: Fond (D. en and et, N. always et) fund, Helbred (D., always c. N.) health, Katalog (D., always c. N.) catalogue, Lak (D. c. and n., No. always n.) sealing wax, Lög (D. always c. N.) onion; Tarv requirements. Sometimes the gender differs in Danish and Norwegian, as can be seen from some of the examples given above; Kontingent is in D. n., in N. c. Kind cheek, D. c., N. mostly n.
162. Something different from the question of grammatical gender is the circumstance that the language in some cases has different words to denote the natural genders. Thus the genders can be distinguished:
1) by adding the feminine ending -inde to the masculine word: Greve count—Grevinde countess; Lœrer teacher—Lœrerinde female teacher; Löve lion—Lövinde lioness;
2) by adding the feminine ending -ske to the masculine word: Opvarter waiter—Opvarterske waitress (usually Opvartningsjomfruen); Berider riding-master, circus-rider—Beriderske female rider.
Note. The ending -ske is usually applied to denote persons of lower position than -inde, but sometimes both may be used: Sangerinde and Sangerske (less common) songstress.
3) by adding the words -kone woman, -pige girl, -jomfru miss to the masculine words or to the corresponding verbs: Vaskerkonen, Vaskerpigen the laundress, Badekonen, Badejomfruen the woman attendant (at the bath), but Badetjeneren the man attendant.
4) in some foreign words the foreign feminine endings are retained: Baronesse, Comtesse, Prinsesse, Restauratrice woman restaurant keeper.
5) The two natural genders of animals are usually denoted by Han he and Hun she placed before the name: Hanbjörn, Hunbjörn (N. Bingse, Binne) he-bear, she-bear Hankat, Hunkat (N. Kjætte) tom-cat, tib-cat. But in some cases there are different words for the two genders Ex.: Buk—Gjed he-goat, she-goat, Vœder—Faar (N. Sau) ram—sheep, ewe.
INFLECTION OF NOUNS.
162b. The nouns of the Danish and Dano-Norwegian language have two cases and two numbers. The cases are: nominative and possessive (genitive).
163. The formation of the possessive. The possessive is formed by adding -s to the nominative (but without apostrophe).
| S. | Pl. | |
| Nom. | Mand | Mænd. |
| Poss. | Mands | Mænds. |
When the noun has the postpositive definite article, the -s is added to the latter:
| Nom. | Manden | Mændene | Huset | Husene. |
| Poss. | Mandens | Mændenes | Husets | Husenes. |
Note 1. Nouns ending in s (z, x) form their possessive by adding es; Ex.: den lille Gaases Mening the opinion of that little goos. Paradues rindende Kilde the running fountain of Paradise; paa et forgyldt Paladses flade Tag on the flat roof of a guilt palace. But as a rule the possessive form of these words, except in the definite form, is avoided. Proper nouns ending in -s may have their possessive of same form as the nominative, only adding an apostrophe, or an s with preceding apostrophe may be added. Ex.: Sokrates’ of Socrates, Valders’s Fjelddale the mountain valleys of Valders. Biblical nouns are sometimes used with the Latin gen. form: Mose Lov Moses’ law, Pauli Breve St. Paul’s epistles.
Note 2. A prepositional complement following the noun which it determines is considered as one word with it and the possessive s is added to the complement: Kongen af Danmarks Brystsukker the king of Denmarks barley sugar (a kind of congh drops), Keiseren over alle Russeres Rige the realm of the Emperor of all Russians.
When several nouns are used to denote one person or thing only the last word gets the s: Kong Olavs Hær the army of king O.
Note 3 Some names of cities, especially those ending in a vowel, have their possessive (when employed as definitive genitive) like the nominative: Kristiania By, Kristiania Universitet etc. the city of Ch., the university of Ch., but Kristianias Indbyggere the inhabitants of Ch. In the same manner: Hamar Stift the diocese of H., Kallundborg By, Sorö Academi, Aalborg Skole the school of Aa., Kongsberg Sölvværk the silver mines of K. (but Bergens By, Trondhjems Domkirke the Cathedral of T. Kjöbenhavns Universitet the university of Copenhagen).
Note 4. In the old language the possessive s was added both to the article and the noun; Ex.: land, gen. landsins. A rest of this mode of inflection is found in such expressions as: Landsens Kost a country bill of fare, Livsens Træ the tree of life, du er Dödsens you are a dead man. Also such forms as: Hjærtens Lyst the desire of the heart, Alterens Sakramente the Lord's supper, find their explanation in the old language where the genitive of the definite article neuter had the form of ins (or ns), not ets (ts) as now. A rest of an old genitive plur. is found in such expressions as: tilhaande (gai en tilhaande to assist one); tilgrunde to the bottom, tilgode due, tilfulde fully, tilbage back, (O. N. til handa to the hands etc).
164. Syntactical remarks about the use of the possessive. The possessive is employed to convey the meaning of possessive, subjective, objective and definitive genitive. In stead of the possessive may in some meanings be used a complement with af (or colloquially til). Han er Sön af sin Fader and han er sin Faders Sön he is a son of his father, Hunden til Pedersen and Pedersens Hund P's dog. The possessive meaning i. e. the pure relation of property can, different from English, never be expressed by af. If two kinds of genitive (poss. and obj. or subj. and obj.) occur in connection with one word, then the objective genitive must be expressed by af. Thus it is wrong to say: Hr. Pedersens Afstraffelse af Hr. Kristensen to indicate the punishment of Mr P. by Mr. K.; it means Mr. P's punishment of Mr. K.
A peculiar use of the possessive form is to express a past time in such expressions as: igaaraftes last night, iaftes last night (but iaften this night); iforgaars the day before yesterday, ihöstes last fall, ivaares last spring.
The possessive form is very common as the first part of compound words: Landsmand countryman, Krigsskib warship, skadeslös indemnified (probably analogously with this latter word are formed the following with irregular genitive in -es: frugteslös fruitless, magteslös, krafteslös powerless, stundeslös fidgety, trösteslös disconsolate). The genitive is especially frequently used when the first part of the composition is itself a compound word: Kirketaarnsur a church steeple clock (but Taarnur a tower clock): Sandstensmur a sand stone wall (but Stenmur a stone wall). Such possessives may sometimes be found as first part of a composition even if there is no corresponding nominative; Ex.: Fralandsvind a land breeze (Vinden staar fra Land the breeze sets from land).
Note: Neither possessive nor af is used to connect a name of material to a name of measure: el Glas Öl a glass of beer, en floske Vin a bottle of wine, en Tönde Poteter a barrel of potatoes etc.
165. Remains of an old gen. plur. are found in a great many compound words the first part of which ends in e (O. N. a). Sengested bedstead, Stoleben chair's leg, Barneaar years of childhood (Börnebal childrens ball, Börnehave kindergarten are exclusively Danish, in N. they say — or are taught to say — Barnebal, Barnehave).
166. Remains of an old dative is found in the adverbial phrases: ad Aare next year, itide in due time, ilive alive, paafærde abroad, at work, igjære in progress, etc.
THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
167. The plural is formed in the following manners:
I) by adding r or er to the singular, with or without “mutation” (see § 149).
II) by adding e to the singular, in a few cases with “mutation.”
III) the plural has the same form as the singular, except that in a few cases the vowel is changed by “mutation”. 168. First Declension.
Paradigms: Flaade fleet, Rige empire, Tand tooth, Konsul, Kjedel kettle:
| Indef. Sing. | Def. Sing. | Indef. Plur. | Def. Plur. | |
| N. | Flaade | Flaaden | Flaader | Flaaderne. |
| Poss. | Flaades | Flaadens | Flaaders | Flaadernes. |
| N. | Rige | Riget | Riger | Rigerne. |
| Poss. | Riges | Rigets | Rigers | Rigernes. |
| N. | Tand | Tanden | Tænder | Tænderne. |
| Poss. | Tans | Tandens | Tænders | Tændernes. |
| N. | Konsul | Konsulen | Konsuler | Konsulerne. |
| Poss. | Konsuls | Konsulens | Konsulers | Konsulernes. |
| N. | Kjedel | Kjedlen | Kjedler | Kjedlerne. |
| Poss. | Kjedels | Kjedlens | Kjedlers | Kjedlernes. |
Remarks. 1) Words ending in an unaccented -e add -r. Exceptions: Öie eye, has plural Öine; Tilfælde case, and Öre a coin have plural the same as singular. Antiquated is Ören plur. of Öre ear, and Öksne (Öxne) plur. of Okse (Oxe); Menneske man (generally) has plur. Mennesker but def. form Menneskene, Bonde peasant forms it plural with “mutation”: Bönder.
2). Words ending in stressed vowel (or an unaccented vowel that is not e) add -er: Toga –Togaer; Mo heath Moer. Except.: Sko shoe plur. same as sing.
3) The folloving monosyllables form their plural with -er and “mutation”.
And duck; Mark a weight (12) lb. also unchanged in plural); Rand border, Stand state, (condition of life), Stang pole, Tang thongs, Haand hand, Stad city, Kraft power. (Plural: Ænder (N.) Mærker, Rænder, Stænder, Stænger, Tænger, Hænder, Stæder, Kræfter). N. Skaak shaft (of a sleigh) plur. Skjæker. Bod fine, plur. Böder; Fod foot, pl. Födder; Rod root, pl. Rödder; Bog book, pl. Böger; N. Glo(d) live coal, pl. Glöder (or Glör); N. Not seine, plur. Nöter. Raa yard (ship's), Taa toe, Klo claw, have their pl. D. Ræer, Tæer, Klöer (se § 17); N. Rær, Tær, Klör. Ko cow, D. pl. Kjöer or Köer (se § 17). N. Kjör (Def. Kjörne or N. Kjörene).
Most of these words, in spite of consisting in plural of two syllables, have the monosyllabic accent (see §§ D. 76, N. 134).
4) A great many monosyllables of common gender form their plural in -er without mutation: Ex.: Aander spirits, Sager cases, Floder rivers, and with doubling of final consonant: Sönner sons, Knapper buttons; and N. Gutter boys.
In some words the Danish and the Norwegian forms of the language disagree: Plads place, D. Pladser, N. Pladse.
Also the following neuter monnosyllables form their plural in -er: Bryst breast, Gods estate, Hul hole, Lem member, Loft ceiling, Punkt point, Skjört skirt, Syn sight, Vœrk work; so also the polysyllables: Bryllup wedding, Hoved head, Herred township, Hundred, Tusind thousand, Lœrred linen, Linned linen, Marked fair.
5) Words ending in -en, en, -ing, -hed, -skab and derivative -st (t) and d: Gjœster guests, Kunster arts, Togter expeditions, Bygder settlements. Words ending in -el and some ending in -en drop their e before the ending: Kjedel kettle, Kjedler, Lagen (bed)sheet, Lagner or Lagener.
In the same manner: Foged sheriff, plur. Fogder.
Note: Olding old man, Slægtning kinsman, Yngling young man as a rule form their plural in -e, but may also take -er: Engel angel, Djœvel devil, Himmel heaven form their plural by adding -e and dropping the -e of their second syllable: Engle, Djœvle, Himle (see § 169).
6) Most foreign words add -er: Konsuler, Patriarker, Prindser etc. But Vest plur. Veste. Foreign words ending in um drop their um before -er: Verbum—Verber. But Album—Albums or Albumer. Pretiosum—Pretiosa.
Also proper nouns used in plural to denote several persons of same name. Ex.: Hedviger, Örstederne but Öhlenschlägere. Furthermore other classes of words (not adjectives) used substantively: Jaerne og Neierne the yeas and noes.
169. Second Declension.
Paradigms: Stol chair, Hat hat, Fader father.
| Indef. Sing. | Def. Sing. | Indef. Plur. | Def. Plur. | |
| N. | Stol | Stolen | Stole | Stolene. |
| P. | Stols | Stolens | Stoles | Stolenes. |
| N. | Hat | Hatten | Hatte | Hattene. |
| P. | Hats | Hattens | Hattes | Hattenes. |
| N. | Fa(de)r | Fa(de)ren | Fædre | Fædrene. |
| P. | Fa(de)rs | Fa(de)rens | Fædres | Fædrenes. |
Most monosyllables of common gender ending in a consonant follow this declension. Also words ending in -er irrespective of gender; some of these drop the e of their last syllable before the e of the ending: Ager field, plural Agre; Fingre fingers, Skuldre shoulders.
But most words ending in -er retain the e of the second syllable in plural: Ankere anchors, Bægere cups, Undere wonders. Especially all nouns denoting persons belonging to a trade or nationality or engaged in an occupation, ending in -er: Bagere bakers, Sangere singers, Tyskere Germans. Words ending in plural in -ere drop their last e before the article: Bægere—Bægerne.
Note. In Denmark they say: en Dansker, pl. Danskerne, a Dane, and en Svensker, pl. Svenskerne, a Swede.
In Norway they say: en Danske, plur. Dansker, and en Svenske, plur. Svensker.
The following words form their plural in -e with “mutation”: Bro(d)er brother, Brödre; Moder mother, Mödre; Fader father, Fædre; Datter daughter, Dötre.
Note 2. Colloquially it is common in Norway to give those words of common gender, which in the literary language take plural -e, the ending -er: Hester, Hunder, Hatter etc. Also the neuters Huser, Gulver etc., but most neuters are unchanged in plural; Ex.: Bord table, Tag roof. Before the article -ne the r is dropped in the pronunciation, so they say: Hestene, Hattene, Guttene etc. Broder etc. never add -er.
170. Third Declension.
Paradigm: Ord word.
| N. | Ord | Ordet | Ord | Ordene. |
| P. | Ords | Ordets | Ords | Ordenes. |
Most neuters ending in a consonant follow this declension. Exceptions: Bord table, Brev letter, Gulv floor, Hus house, Navn name, Skib ship, Sogn parish, Tag roof, Toug (N. Taug) rope and some others take -e: Borde etc.; others take -er (see § 165, 4 and 5, and § 169 note 2.) “Mutation” without any ending have: Mand man, plur. Mænd; Gaas goose, plur. Gjæs (D. also Gæs) Barn child has plural Börn and Barnebarn grandchild pl. Börnebörn. These are the only remains of the U-mutation of the old language. In Norway they say (and have commenced to write): pl. Barn and Barnebarn (the same as singular).
171. Some nouns have regularly no plural on account of their signification. Such are proper and collective nouns, names of substances, and abstract nouns indicating a quality. Ex.: Björnson, Jern iron, Godhed goodness. So also words, which otherwise take a plural, when they are used collectively. Ex.: Har du faaet meget Fisk (or mange Fisk) idag have you caught many fish to-day. Words indicating measures or values when ending in a consonant have, as a rule, in that meaning and when connected with a numeral, no plural. Ex.: To Fod Vand two feet of water (but to Födder two feet, as part of the body). Other such words: Alen ell, Meter, Fad cask, Anker anker, Daler Dollar, Glas glass. But Krone crown (coin), Tönde barrel, and others ending in -e take plural; also Pot (Potte) quart, Oksehoved hog's head, plur. Oksehoveder, Mark (12 lb) may have plur. N. Mærker, but also unchanged, Bog quire, plur. Böger, Favn cord and fathom pl. Farne. Læst, last (two Reg. tons) pl. Læster. Also: en Hær paa 1000 Mand an army of 1000 men.
Other nouns only occur in plural; Ex.: Forældre parents, Forfædre ancestors, Söskende brothers and sisters (at least one of each), Penge money, Indvolde entrails, Briller eyeglasses, Tyvekoster (also Koster alone) stolen property, Höns chickens.
Others have singular but in a different meaning from the plural: Klæder clothes, but Klæde cloth (see also § 140), Kopper (Smaakopper) smallpox, but Kop—Kopper cup, Midler means (money), Middel means (instrument).
Note. Colloquially it is common to say: Jeg er gode Venner med ham I am on friendly terms with him.