A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Orchestra

by William Smyth Rockstro

ORCHESTRA (Gr. ὀρχήστρα, i.e. a dancing place; Ital. Orchestra; Germ. Orchester; Fr. Orchestre).

I. That portion of a Theatre, or Concert-room, which is set apart for the accommodation of the Instrumental Band—in the latter case, of the Chorus also.

The word is of Greek origin, and in classical times denoted an open space, in which Dances were performed, to the sound of various Instruments. This space was situated between the seats for the audience, and the κοῖλον (from κοῖλος, concave), another curvilinear space enclosed for the use of the Chorus, immediately in front of the Proscenium (προσκήνιον). In Roman theatres the Orchestra was diverted from its original purpose, and filled with seats for the Senators; for which reason it was placed at a lower level than its Greek prototype, though it occupied exactly the same situation on the groundplan of the building.

In modern theatres the normal position of the Orchestra is in front of the Stage, but, on a level with the floor of the Stalls and Pit—the parterre of the French Opera-houses. The advantages of this arrangement are very great. It permits the sound of the Instrumental Band to be heard in every part of the house, and effectually prevents it from overpowering the Singer, who throws his Voice over it from the higher level of the Stage. Yet exception has been taken to it. The construction of the new theatre at Bayreuth for the performance of Wagner's 'Tetralogy,' afforded the Composer an excellent opportunity for carrying out, to its fullest extent, his long-cherished idea of keeping the Instrumental Band entirely out of sight of the audience; accordingly, the Orchestra was so enclosed as to render it absolutely invisible to a spectator seated in any part of the house, while its tones were perfectly audible, and its performances as completely under the command of the Conductor as they would have been in an ordinary theatre. Not the least of the difficulties which presented themselves, during the time that this bold experiment was in progress, was that of so regulating the numerical strength of the Instrumentalists as to neutralise the deadening effect of the enclosure: this however was so triumphantly vanquished, that, so far as the audience were concerned, the result left nothing to be desired. The performers however were not equally well satisfied with the arrangement: and there certainly does seem room for fearing that their convenience was—perhaps unavoidably—made a secondary consideration. So great was the distress caused by the heated atmosphere of the house, and the absence of proper ventilation, that many of them, it is said, announced their firm determination never again to submit to such severe and health-destroying discomfort. That the grievance was a real one is admitted on all hands; but it must not be forgotten that this was the first experiment of the kind that had ever been tried on an extensive scale; and it is not at all improbable that an efficient remedy for the evil may suggest itself in time for the next grand Festival.

In concert-rooms, the Orchestra is usually placed at one end of the apartment, at such a height above the general level of the floor that the 'full length' figure of a Performer, standing in front, may be visible to a seated audience. In these cases, the seats in the Orchestra are generally placed in rows, one above another, in the form of the segment of an amphitheatre; while in order to throw the sound more forcibly into the midst of the Auditorium, the wall behind is frequently moulded into a quasi-hemispherical form. The arrangements at the old Hanover Square Rooms were very perfect in this respect. Those at ^[1]Exeter Hall, S. James's Hall, the Albert Hall, and the Crystal Palace, are too well known to need description. In almost every newly-built concert-room, some new experiment is tried: but, as no theory, at once certain and practicable, has as yet been advanced on the subject, the attempts to introduce improvements are almost always empirical. It seems strange, that in these days of scientific progress no infallible model can be proposed; but we must hope that reiterated attempts will eventually lead to the desired result.

II. Both in England and on the Continent the term Orchestra is also applied, collectively, to the body of Instrumental Performers officiating at a Theatre, in a Concert-room, or on a Stage or raised Platform in the open air. It is not, however, extended to a company of Solo-players, however numerous, on the ground that, unless the stringed parts, or at least some of the parts, be doubled, the performance assimilates itself to one of Chamber-Music: nor is it applied either to the Performers attached to a Regiment, or to a company of Instrumentalists, who, playing in the open air, stand upon the ground instead of upon a raised platform. In these two last cases, the word substituted for it is Band. [See vol. i. p. 134.]

III. In a third sense, the term is applied, not only to the body of Performers, but to the Instruments upon which they play—and with which they are of course, in technical language, identified. Thus we constantly hear of 'an Orchestra consisting of thirty Stringed Instruments, with a full complement of Wind.'

Three hundred years ago the number of Orchestral Instruments was very small, and so undecided that it was not always possible to say whether a certain Instrument was orchestral or not. Lutes and Viols of all kinds were indeed in constant use, together with Flutes—in the form of the old Flute à bec—Cornets, Trumpets, Drums, and even Saracenic Instruments dating from the time of the Crusades; but there was no rule as to their combination, so that they could scarcely be said to constitute an Orchestra at all. For instance, in the 'Ballet comique de la Royne' performed at the Chateau de Moutiers, on the occasion of the marriage of Margaret of Lorraine with the Duc de Joyeuse in 1581, mention is made of Hautboys, Flutes, Cornets, Trombones, Viole di Gamba, Lutes, Harps, a Flageolet—played by Pan—and ten Violins, played by as many Ballet-dancers in full dress.^[2] Such an array would, at first sight, lead us to expect great things, did we not find that the Performers were separated into ten Bands (dix concerts de musique); that the Violins were reserved for one particular scene, in which they played alone, five on each side; that in another Scene Neptune and his followers were armed with 'lyres, luths, harpes, flustes, et autres instruments'; and that in another Jupiter descended from a golden dome, in which were placed forty Musicians, 'avec nouveaux instruments, et differents de precedens.' This alone will be sufficient to show the confused state of Instrumental Music in the 16th century; and when we add that the manner of writing, even for a Concert of Viols, was exactly the same as that used for unaccompanied Voices—insomuch that we constantly meet with compositions 'apt for Voyces or Viols'—it will be readily understood that, in France at least, the Orchestra was in its infancy. Nevertheless, this is really the earliest Instrumental Band used in connection with a dramatic performance of which we have any certain ; we must therefore accord to France the honour which is justly her due.

In Italy the Orchestra developed itself from small beginnings, with an uninterrupted regularity which led to very unexpected results. The earliest dramatic representation in which we hear of the employment of a regular staff of Instrumental Performers is the Oratorio called 'La Rappresentazione dell' Anima e del Corpo,' composed by Emilio del Cavaliere, and first performed at Rome, in the Oratory attached to the Church of S. Maria in Vallicella, in the month of February, 1600. The Orchestra used on this occasion consisted of a Double Lyre (or Viol di Gamba), a Harpsichord, a Double Guitar (or Bass Lute), and two Flutes. This little Band—modest indeed compared with that used at the Chateau de Moutiers—was kept entirely out of sight, like the Orchestra at Bayreuth; but the Composer recommended that the various Characters employed in the Drama should carry Instruments in their hands, and at least play, or pretend to play, during the Symphonies, and also that a Violin should play in unison with the Soprano Voice throughout.

Ten months after the production of this primitive Oratorio, that is to say in December 1600, Peri produced at Florence the first Opera Seria, 'Euridice,' which was accompanied by an Orchestra, consisting of a Harpsichord, a Large Guitar, a Great Lyre (or Viol di Gamba), and a Large Lute (or Theorbo). These Instruments were also hidden behind the Proscenium, as were, in all probability, three Flutes used in a certain Scene, in which the Shepherd, Tirsi, pretends to play upon a triple pipe (Triflauto), which he holds in his hand.

The next advance was made by Monteverde, who used for the accompaniment of his 'Orfeo,' produced at Mantua in 1608, an Orchestra consisting of two Harpsichords, two Bass Viols (Contrabassi di Viola), ten Tenor Viols (Viole da brazzo), one Double Harp, two little French Violins, two Large Guitars, two Organs of wood, two Viole di Gamba, four Trombones, one Regal, two Cornets, one little Octave Flute (Flautino alla vigesima secunda), one Clarion, and three Trumpets with Mutes (1 Clarino, e 3 Trombe sordine). We have no means of ascertaining whether the performers upon these Instruments were kept out of sight or not, though it seems scarcely probable that Monteverde would have abandoned a plan which had already been successfully adopted both by Emilio del Cavaliere and Peri. The one thing that strikes us as peculiar is, that the Performers should have been allowed so very much latitude with regard to the notes they were to play. So much of the Opera is accompanied by a simple Figured Bass, that unless separate parts not included in the Score were written for the other Instruments—which seems very unlikely indeed—the members of the Orchestra must have been allowed to play pretty much as they pleased.

As the rapid progress of Dramatic Music rendered the exhibition of more artistically-constructed Accompaniments an absolute necessity, this heterogeneous mixture of Instruments gradually gave place to a more orderly arrangement, in which Viols of various kinds played an important part, the Thoroughbass being played by the Viol di Gamba and other large Stringed Instruments, while the Harmony was sustained by the Harpsichord. After a time the Violin began to assert its true position in the Score, and when this great step was gained the rest was easy. In 1549 [[App. p.735 "1649"] Cavalli, in 'Il Giasone,' accompanied a Song with two Violins and a Bass, very much in the way in which Handel would have used the same Instruments fifty years later.^[3] Alessandro Stradella, in his Oratorio 'S. Giovanni Battista,' composed about 1676, uses a double Orchestra, consisting of two solo Violins and Violoncello, del concertino, and a large body of ripieni Violins, Tenors, and Basses, del concerto grosso. About the same time we find Alessandro Scarlatti writing for two Violins, Viola, and Bass, and using them exactly as they have ever since been used by Composers of every School in Europe:^[4] and Burney tells us that he saw in Rome a Song by this great Master, with Trumpet obbligato, written in a style which proved him to have studied the peculiarities of the Instrument with the closest possible attention.

Here then, before the close of the 17th century, we find the elements of a complete and well-ordered Orchestra, consisting of the full Stringed Band—sometimes succinctly, but very inexactly, called the 'Stringed Quartet'—with the addition of Wind Instruments, available either for producing variety of effect, or of communicating that special colouring upon which, in Dramatic Music, so many passages depend, not only for their success but for their title to rank as parts of a logical and consistent whole. So far as general principles are concerned no change has taken place from that time to this. Then, as now, the Stringed Band formed the foundation of all things, while the Wind Instruments were used to strengthen, to enlarge, or to beautify the structure raised by its efforts, and supported by its firm tone and massive proportions. We do not mean to say that no improvements have since been made, that no mistakes were committed in times past, or that the Composers of the 17th century understood one hundredth part as much about the Orchestra as Handel, or Mozart, or Beethoven, or could produce one thousandth part of the effect with it that they could; but we do say that the law to which we have called attention is immutable, and that, so long as it is recognised in theory and carried out in practice, there can be no inherent weakness in the constitution of the Orchestra, and no lack of opportunities for the display of varied and original Orchestration. Scarlatti evidently took this view of the case; and no great Composer of later date has ventured to dispute it. [See Orchestration.]

Passing from Italy to Germany, we find the Orchestra arranged upon the same general plan, though with important modifications of detail. That the same fundamental principle should be accepted in both countries is not at all surprising, for experience has long since proved the impossibility of devising a better one. The differences of detail are the necessary consequence of differences already existing between the styles of composition adopted in the German and Italian Schools. In Germany, the Art of Counterpoint was never either neglected or despised. When strict Counterpoint gave place to the system of free Part-writing which is sometimes erroneously called by its name, the true Polyphony of the 16th century was also replaced by that Polyodic Style, which, no less ingenious or complicated than the older method, was equally antagonistic to the Monodic School then so zealously defended in Italy. This new German School reached its highest perfection in the works of Joh. Seb. Bach: and no one understood better than he the kind of Orchestra needed for the support of its vocal harmonies. Thoroughly recognising the necessity for using the Stringed Band as the basis of the whole, he preferred to employ Wind Instruments for the purpose of enlarging his original design, rather than that of strengthening or decorating it. When he added a Flute or Oboe or Bassoon to his Score, he loved not only to make it obbligato, but to write it in such wise that it should form a new real part. Hence, even in his regularly-constructed Arias, the Voice is scarcely so much accompanied by the various Instruments employed as made to sing in concert with them, the Scores containing as many real parts as there are Solo Voices or Instruments introduced into it. This plan has not been extensively adopted in later times. Indeed, it could only succeed in the hands of a Master of the highest rank; for it causes a strain upon the faculties of the hearer, which, if unrelieved by a well-balanced series of more simple combinations, would become intolerable. Bach saw this need, and provided for it very carefully. His power of self-abnegation was as great as his power of production; and he used it with equal effect. Interspersed among his passages for the full Orchestra we find a multitude of others, written very thinly indeed; sometimes employing only the Bass, and a single Solo Instrument, for the accompaniment of the Voice; sometimes using nothing but a Thoroughbass, with Figures indicating the Chords to be applied upon the Organ or Harpsichord. These are the half-tints of the picture, introduced with magical skill in the exact places were relief is needed, and always so arranged as either to afford a point of necessary repose, after an exciting passage, or a moment of calm preparation for a coming effect. Bach's constant employment of this artifice, for the purpose of throwing in his lights and shadows, and thereby producing some of his finest effects, is very remarkable: but it has been—and, alas! still is—entirely overlooked by some of his most zealous admirers. It is supposed that Bach did not leave these 'bare places' intentionally—that he meant them to be 'filled up.' So they have been filled up already in some of his greatest works, and are to be, we believe, still more extensively so in time to come; not by noisy lovers of the Bass Drum and Ophicleide, but by learned Musicians, incapable of vulgarity or roughness of any kind. First among these is Robert Franz, a profound Master of the Art of Part-writing, who has studied Bach so deeply, and so thoroughly imbibed his style, that, were his 'Additional Accompaniments' to the 'Matthäus Passion,' the 'Magnificat,' and the 'Kirchen-cantaten,' submitted to a competent jury, with no written guide to distinguish the added portions from the original work, it is quite possible that the one might sometimes be mistaken for the other. It would be by no means disgraceful to fancy that Bach had written some of Franz's additions—only, he did not write them. Why not? Because he did not wish to impose, either upon the ear or the mind, an uninterrupted strain which he knew could be borne by neither. Because he did not stoop to court popularity by introducing a grand effect into every bar, after the manner of some later writers, well knowing that every such forced effort becomes an anticlimax, alike destructive to the symmetry and the consistency of the general design. It is said that our Orchestras differ so much from those used by Bach that his Music produces no effect when played without these unhappy additions. Our Orchestras do really differ from the older German ones, in three particulars: in the number of Instruments employed; in the proportion observed between the Stringed and Wind Instruments; and, in the absence of many Instruments used by Bach and his contemporaries, which are now quite obsolete. Concerning the question of numerical strength we need say nothing; for it is a matter of no consequence whatever, provided the proper proportion be maintained: but, this proportion is a matter of vital importance. Knowing, as we do, that Bach's Stringed Band rarely numbered more than twelve or fourteen Instruments, does it not follow that, if we increase that number, we must proportionately increase the number of the Wind Instruments also? If Bach considered fourteen Stringed Instruments a fair balance for two Hautboys and two Bassoons, common sense should tell us that to balance fifty-six Stringed Instruments we shall need eight Hautboys and eight Bassoons. Yet, in practice, though our stringed power is continually on the increase, our Wind Instruments—except at great Festivals—are scarcely ever even doubled. The treatment of the parts written for Instruments now obsolete is undoubtedly surrounded with greater difficulties. Bach constantly wrote for the Oboe d'amore, the Oboe di caccia (or Taille de Basson), the Viol d'amore, the Viol di gamba, and other Stringed and Wind Instruments now regarded only as antique curiosities. Moreover, his Trumpet parts could not possibly be played with the mouthpieces now in use, even supposing the art of playing on the old-fashioned Trumpet to be not utterly lost. In cases of this kind, a certain amount of compromise is of course unavoidable; but surely it would be better to play a Trumpet-part on the Cornet, than to change the disposition of the Score.

Handel used a larger Orchestra, and treated it very differently. It is true that he frequently produced delightful effects by writing in real parts, but as a general rule he preferred treating the Acompaniment as a background to his picture, only elevating it to the rank of an essential element in the design where he desired to invest it with more than ordinary interest. A huge proportion of his Songs are accompanied only by a Thoroughbass, the Chords to which were supplied in Church on the Organ, and in Chamber Music on the Harpsichord, at which Instrument the Conductor was accustomed to preside until the practice of beating time with a Bâton became general.^[5] In many cases this simple Thoroughbass, with its quiet Chords, was contrasted in the same Song with a Violin part, or with the full Stringed Band, or even with Stringed and Wind Instruments combined. In his Overtures, and the Accompaniments to his Choruses, Handel generally strengthened the Violin parts with Hautboys in unison, and the Basses with Bassoons and even Double Bassoons, as in 'L' Allegro'; but he also constantly occupied the Wind Instruments with independent parts, forming a sort of ornamentation upon the simple structure provided by the Stringed Band. Again, he constantly used the Stringed and Wind Band in separate bodies, each complete in itself, and each contrasted with and employed in constant response to the other, with the happiest possible effect, and a very close approach to the praxis of the 19th century. He rarely used obsolete Instruments, except in his earlier works; but we do occasionally find important parts written for the Viola da Gamba, or the Violetta marina. In his grander pieces he delighted in the use of three Trumpets the third being called—'Principale'; and in 'Rinaldo' he uses four, with the Drums for their characteristic Bass. In many of his Oratorios and Operas he strengthens the Brass Band with two Horns, and in 'Saul' he adds three Trombones. Flutes he rarely used, except as Solo Instruments, in which form he sometimes produced great effects with them, especially in 'Rinaldo,' one of the Songs in which is accompanied by two Flutes and an Ottavino. With the use of the Organ, or at least the Harpsichord, he never dispensed; but he very seldom wrote a separate part for it, leaving the Performer to fill in the Chords as he pleased, from the Figures written under the Thoroughbass. We see therefore that, with the sole exception of the Clarinet, he was acquainted with, and used, every Instrument now found in an ordinary classical Orchestra. But he very rarely used them all together, and took especial care not to let them pall upon the ear by introducing them into too many pieces in succession—circumstances which have given grievous offence to more than one modern chef d'orchestre. If Bach's works are treated tenderly in the matter of 'Additional Accompaniments,' no such reserve is practised with regard to those of Handel. All that seems necessary, in the present state of public opinion, is to supplement his Instrumentation with the largest Brass Band that can possibly be brought together—a proceeding which entirely destroys the individuality and obscures the dignity of every work subjected to its baleful influence. The practice is defended, on the ground that our Orchestras do not fairly express Handel's meaning. Then let us make them do so, by restoring them to their old proportions, as we have already proposed to do with the Orchestras used by Bach. Let us strengthen the Violin parts by making a powerful body of Hautboys play in unison with them, and reinforce the Bass with an equally sonorous army of Bassoons, and as many Contra-Fagotti as can be brought together; and above all, let us fill in the Chords on the Organ, whenever we are directed to do so by the Figures placed under the Bass. It will be time enough to talk of additions to the Score when these expedients have been tried on a grand scale, and in an earnest spirit—not in the hope that they may fail. Meanwhile, cannot something be done in the way of a beginning? Are we nevermore to hear the 'Occasional Overture' except in a disguise worthy of that to 'Tannhäuser,' or the March at the end of it played by other Instruments than those used for the March in the 'Prophète'? In no Art save that of Music would abuses such as those of which we complain be permitted. Were a highly-educated member of the once famous 'Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood' to spend the best years of his life in covering the dark background of one of Titian's magnificent portraits with an elaborately-finished landscape, we might wonder at his cleverness, but we should scarcely feel very grateful to him for his contribution to the treasury of Art—yet we are expected to be very grateful indeed for the elaborated editions of Bach's works with which we are from time to time presented. Were an inferior painter to cover a similar background with red or yellow drapery, we should greet him with a howl of execration—yet the red and yellow drapery would not be more vulgar than the sound of an Ophicleide in the 'Messiah.' Our fathers understood these matters better than we do. They strengthened the Orchestra on the exact plan we have proposed. At the 'Handel Commemoration,' held in Westminster Abbey in 1784, the Orchestra contained 48 First and 47 Second Violins, 26 Violas, 21 Violoncellos, 15 Double Basses, 6 flutes, 26 Hautboys, 26 Bassoons, 1 Double Bassoon, 12 Trumpets, 12 Horns, 6 Trombones (which were needed for the selections from 'Saul'), 4 Drums, and 2 Organs. Here the proportion of Hautboys and Violins was considerably more than one to four; while the Bassoons actually outnumbered the Violoncellos, and the Trumpet and Horn parts were doubled over and over again. We can quite understand the feeling which led Burney to say that the effect of this grand array of Drums and Trumpets in the opening of the Dettingen 'Te Deum' was 'indescribable.'

It is time that we should now proceed to classify the various aspects under which we have met with the Orchestra, in order that we may the better understand its later modifications. Up to this time it has presented itself to us in five different forms, which we shall enumerate in the order of their relative importance.

1. A complete Stringed Band, consisting of two Violins, Viola, Violoncello, and Contra Basso, the parts being doubled ad libitum.
2. A complete Stringed Band, as above, strengthened, by means of Wind Instruments playing in unison with the Violins, Viole, or Basses.
3. A complete Stringed Band, enlarged by Wind Instruments playing in real parts.
4. A complete Stringed Band, assisted by Wind Instruments playing independent passages.
5. A complete Stringed Band, contrasted with, and supported by, a complete Wind Band.

All these forms are used by modern writers; and, by their artistic combination, the best of our orchestral effects are produced. It is needless to say that the effects of to-day are very different from those produced a hundred and fifty, or even a hundred years ago. The materials employed were very nearly the same, but the grouping is different. This will be very clearly seen, if we compare the Orchestra used at the 'Handel Commemoration' with an ordinary Classical Orchestra of the present day. The constitution of the former has already been described; that of the latter is shown in the following table, which gives the average numerical strength of a Band, of fair proportions, such as would be needed for the effective performance of the later works of Haydn, or all those of Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Cherubini, Spohr, and Mendelssohn.

Stringed Band.
First Violins (from 6 to 12). Second Violins (from 6 to 12). Viole (from 4 to 8). Violoncelli (from 4 to 8). Contra-Bassi (from 4 to 8).
Wood Wind.	Brass Instruments.
2 Flutes. 2 Oboes. 2 Clarinets. 2 Bassoons.	2 Trumpets. 2 or 4 Horns. 3 Trombones. 2 Drums.[6]

An Orchestra consisting of these component parts is generally looked upon as sufficiently complete for all practical purposes, including the performance of the Oratorio, the Opera, or the Symphony. It may however be necessary, on special occasions, to make additions to it. Thus, for Beethoven's Overture to 'Egmont' a Flauto Piccolo is needed; for Haydn's 'Creation,' a Double Bassoon; for Mozart's 'Requiem,' 2 Corni di Bassetto; for Mendelssohn's Overture to 'A Midsummer Night's Dream,' an Ophicleide (used for the purpose of imitating the Voice of the spell-bound Bottom). These however are exceptional cases. As a general rule, the scheme we have laid down will be found sufficient for the purposes of all ordinary Classical Music; and the best proof of its excellence is, that all the great classical writers of the present century have unhesitatingly adopted it.

Now, one of the most obvious peculiarities of an Orchestra thus constituted is, that it naturally divides itself into at least three distinct groups, and may, by a little consideration, be easily subdivided into as many more. The first group is formed by the full Stringed Band, of which we have already spoken as the foundation of the whole. The second comprises the Instruments popularly called the 'Wood Wind'—that is to say, the Flutes, Oboes, Clarinets, and Bassoons. The third includes all the Brass Instruments, whether Trumpets, Horns, or Trombones; and, as the Drums form the natural Bass to the Trumpets, it may without inconsistency be made to include them also. The Stringed Band is less frequently subdivided than the Wind: sometimes, however, we meet with a sub-group, consisting of four Violin parts, as in Weber's Overture to 'Euryanthe' and Wagner's Introduction to 'Lohengrin'; and, sometimes, as in Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, the Violoncellos and Double Basses are formed into a sub-group, either with or without the Violas. The 'Wood Wind' easily divides itself into Flutes and Oboes, and Clarinets and Bassoons; or into Flutes and Clarinets, and Oboes and Bassoons. The Brass Band also very naturally subdivides itself into two sub-groups; the Trumpets, Horns, and Drums; and the three Trombones. Each of these groups and sub-groups serves its own great purpose in the œconomy of modern Instrumentation. Each is complete in itself, and capable of expressing a perfect and independent harmony. Each therefore may claim to be regarded as a diminutive Orchestra, capable either of separate treatment, or of combination with its fellow sub-Orchestras, into a grand and well-contrasted whole. With such a comprehensive engine at his command, it is indeed strange if the Composer cannot strike out effects, not only telling, but original; not only new, but characteristic. It must not however be supposed that we are permitted at the present day to enjoy the privilege of hearing the effects imagined by the Composers of fifty years ago in the form in which they were originally written. Mozart used three Trombones in 'Il Don Giovanni'; but modern taste decrees that he did not use them enough, and therefore introduces them into an infinity of passages in which he did not permit them to be heard. In 'Le Nozze di Figaro' he did not use them at all; yet they are played in all the loud passages in the Opera, just as in 'Israel in Ægypt' they are played in nearly all the Choruses. The weakness of the pioneers of Art was manifested in cautious attempts at effects as vet untried: that of the present age betrays itself in a restless impatience of repose; a morbid desire to achieve some new and striking success at every turn; an utter absence of that sublime self-control which enables the great Poet, the great Orator, the great Painter, or the great Composer, purposely to tone down a large proportion of his work, in order that it may not diminish the effect of certain passages to which he desires to attract attention as the crowning points of the whole. If there is to be a crowning point, all lesser details must be kept in subjection to it. The last three centuries have not produced ten Musicians capable of managing an anticlimax. Those who tamper with the Scores of the Great Masters think nothing of all this. It is to their forgetfulness of it that we owe nine-tenths of the spurious Instrumentation that is daily foisted upon us in the name of Handel, or Bach, or Mozart; and it is to this also that we are in a great measure indebted for the pernicious system, now so prevalent, of enlarging our Orchestras at the wrong end—of filling them with noisy Brass Instruments, originally intended for, and only endurable in, a Military Band played in the open air, instead of increasing the fulness of their tone by augmenting the strength of the Strings, and doubling, or, if necessary, even quadrupling that of the Wood Wind. The number of large Orchestras free from this defect is exceedingly small, in England, as well as on the Continent; but an exception must be made in favour of Orchestras enlarged for a special purpose. Some years ago, Berlioz produced some gorgeous orchestral effects by means of combinations which rendered a disturbance of the normal balance absolutely necessary. Wagner constantly does the same. In 'Lohengrin' he uses, in addition to the usual stringed Band, 3 Flutes, 1 Piccolo, 3 Oboes, 1 Corno Inglese, 3 Clarinets, 1 Bass Clarinet, 3 Bassoons, 3 Trumpets, 4 Horns, 3 Trombones, 1 Bass Tuba, 3 Kettle Drums, Side Drum, Cymbals, Triangle, Tambourine, and Harp; and, on the Stage, or behind the Scenes, 2 Flutes, 1 Piccolo, 3 Oboes, 3 Clarinets, 2 Bassoons, 4 Trumpets, 3 Horns, 3 Trombones, Kettle Drum, and Cymbals. In 'Tannhäuser' the Wind Instruments employed are, 3 Flutes, 1 Piccolo, 2 Oboes, 2 Clarinets, 1 Bass Clarinet, 2 Bassoons, 2 Horns, 2 Valve Horns, 3 Trumpets, 3 Trombones, and 1 Bass Tuba, with 1 Pair of Kettle Drums, Bass Drum, Cymbals, Triangle, Tambourine, and Harp; and, on the Stage, 4 Flutes, 2 Piccolos, 4 Oboes, 6 Corni Inglesi, 6 Clarinets, 6 Bassoons, 12 Trumpets, 12 Horns, 4 Trombones, Cymbals, Triangle, and Tambourine. These, however, are exceptional cases, and, as such, must be taken for what they are worth. Since the death of Mozart, the normal form of the Orchestra has undergone no important change whatever, apart from the abuses we have condemned, save in its numerical proportions; and in order to give the reader a fair idea of these, we shall conclude our article with a list of the Instruments contained in some of the most celebrated Orchestras of the present day, beginning with that of the Philharmonic Society.

Instruments.	Philharmonic, London.	Crystal Palace Saturday Concerts.	Conservatoire, Paris.	Gewandhaus, Leipzig.	Sinfonie Soirien, Berlin, 1880.	Philharmonie, Vienna.	Dresden Opera 1764, (Hasse).	Philharmonic Society, New York (Theod. Thomas).	Bayreuth, 1878.	Birmingham Festival, 1879.	Lower Rhine Festival, 1880.	Handel & Haydn Festival, Boston, 1880.	Handel Commem., Westminster Abbey, 1784.	Handel Festival, Crystal Palace, 1880.
1st Violins	14	14	15	14	12	20	8	23	16	23	22	13	48	92
2nd do.	12	14	14	14	10	20	7	20	16	25	22	10	47	85
Violas	10	10	10	9	8	6	4	16	12	20	20	8	26	57
Violoncellos	10	10	12	9	9	12	8	14	12	17	19	8	21	58
Double Basses	8	10	9	6	6	10	3	15	8	17	14	8	15	48
Flutes	2	2	4	2	2	2	2	3	3	4	4	2	6	8
Piccolo	1*	1*	1*	…	1	1*	…	…	1	…	…	1	…	6
Oboes	2	2	2	2	2	2	5	3	3	4	4	3	26	8
Cor Anglais	1*	1*	…	…	1	1*	…	1	1	…	…	1	…	…
Clarinet	2	2	2	2	2	2	…	4	3	4	4	2	…	8
Corno di Bassetto	1*	1*	…	…	1	1*	…	1	1	…	…	…	…	…
Bassoon	2	2	4	2	2	2	5	3	3	4	4	4	26	8
Double bassoon	1*	1*	…	…	1	1	…	…	1	1	…	1	1	2
Trumpets	4	2	2	2	4	4	3	3	3	2	4	4	12	6
Horns	4	4	4	4	4	4	2	8	8	4	6	4	12	12
Trombones	8	3	3	3	3	3	…	4	8	3	3	3	6	9
Timpani, pairs	1	1	1	…	1	1	3	2	2	1	1	1	4
Cornet à pistons	…	…	1	…	…	…	…	…	…	2	…	…	…	6
Bass trumpet	…	…	…	…	…	…	…	1	1	…	…	…	…	…
Tenor tuba	…	…	…	…	…	…	…	…	2	…	…	…	…	…
Ophicleide, Bass tuba, etc.	1*	1*	1*	…	1	…	…	1	2	1	1	2	…	3
Contrabass tuba	…	…	…	…	…	…	…	…	1	…	…	…	…	…
Contrbass trombone	…	…	…	…	…	…	…	…	1	…	…	…	…	…
Harp	1*	1*	1*	…	2	2	…	2	6	2	…	1	…	…
Bass drum	1*	1*	1*	1*	1	1	…	1	1	1	…	…	…	1
Cymbals, pairs	1*	1*	1*	…	1	1	…	1	1	1	…	1	…	4

* Whenever indicated in the score.

[ W. S. R. ]

1. This very day (July 12, 1880) doomed as a concert-room, after 46 years' service.
2. See vol. i. p. 133a. For an example of the music of this curious ballet, see Orchestration, p. 567b.
3. See example p. 503.
4. See example p. 505.
5. It is not possible to fix the date at which the practice of conducting from the Harpsichord was superseded by the use of the Bâton: indeed, the change took place so gradually that it is probable the two systems were long used simultaneously. The general opinion ts, that the custom of beating time was first adopted about the close of the 18th century; and, in support of this, it is said that the celebrated leader, William Cramer—the father of the great Pianist—indignantly refused obedience to the Bâton of Dr. Philip Hayes, who died in 1797. The story is told so circumstantially that we cannot doubt its truth; but its value as a piece of historical evidence is contradicted by two curious facts, which point in exactly opposite directions. On May 25, 1829, Mendelssohn conducted his Symphony in minor at the Philharmonic Concert—then held at the Argyll Rooms—from the Pianoforte, to which he was led by John Cramer: the practice of conducting from the Piano, therefore, long outlived the 18th century. But that the practice of beating time with the Bâton must be at least as old as the middle of the 17th is proved by evidence which admits of no contradiction. On the Soundboard of a beautiful Harpsichord, dated 'Andreas Ruckers me fecit Antwerpiæ, 1651,' is painted a Concert of Monkeys, one of whom, standing in the midst of his anthropoid brethren, is deliberately beating time with a regular Bâton. This valuable instrument, believed on strong evidence to have belonged to Handel, was formerly to be seen at the show-rooms of Messrs. Broadwood & Co., by whose kindness it is now exhibited at the Kensington Museum. Schœlcher mentions it, and describes the picture, but does not notice the fact that the monkey is beating time—a circumstance first pointed out to the writer by the late Mr. Black. It has been suggested that the picture may be a later addition; but this is impossible. It must have been painted before the instrument was strung.
6. For the Compass, quality of Tone, and other peculiaritles of these instruments, see each described under its own proper name.