A Grammar of the Telugu Language/Chapter I/Consonants

by Charles Philip Brown

On the Consonants.

The first 25 consonants, as shewn in the alphabet stand in five lines each of which contains four letters beside a nasal.

The four letters which thus form one line are looked upon as one and the same. This particularly happens as regards initials wherein according to grammatical principles denominated sandhi, (which will be explained elsewhere) the “hard” letters కచటతప​ are softened and respectively become గజడదబ​.

Elsewhere a letter is needlessly aspirated. Thus దొర​ dora (ruler, lord) is always spelt ధొర​ dhora. The words గటి gatti, (strong) and బావి bavi (a well) are in like manner written ఘట్టి ghatti and భావి bhāvi.

It often is optional to use a soft or hard initial. Thus the word దోవ​ (a road) may be at pleasure spelt తోవ​, త్రోవ​, దోవ​, ద్రోవ, tova, trova, dova, drova.

And, as here exemplified, many pure Telugu words have a liberty of adding R to the initial consonant. Thus కొత్త​​ cotta (new,) may be spelt క్రొత్త​ crotta: and కింద​ kinda (under) may be spelt క్రింద​ krinda.

By “pure Telugu words” (అచ్చ​ తెమగు) grammarians intend such as are not derived from Sanscrit. The principles of Telugu and Sanscrit spelling are widely different: but it is requisite to explain both, the reader will observe that such rules as mention one of these languages do not apply to both.

As the letters of each class are mutable, the Telugu dictionary (not yet printed) is so arranged that the four first consonants of each వర్గం vargam or set, are mingled: just as I and J, or U and V were (with less necessity) mingled in our earlier English dictionaries. The various nasals remain separate.

The sounds of many consonants require no explanation. Thus

క K, గ​ G, చ​ cha, జ​ J, న​ N, ప​, బ​ B, మ​ M, య​ Y, ర​ R, ల K, వ​ V, స​ S, హ​ H are pronounced (usually) like the English letters to which they answer.

The aspirates are as follows:—

ఖ kh as in park—house; ఘ​ gh as in log—house; ఛ chh as in coach—house; ఝ​ jh as in judge—Hale; ఠ th as in but—him, not—here; థ th (soft) nearly the same; ఫ​ ph as in up—here; భ​ bh as in abhor.

The capital shapes of the consonants are given in the alphabet. But some of them take another form when written beneath the lines. Thus క​ is the capital form and (Telugu characters) or (Telugu characters) is the second form of K. Thus in the words లెక్క​ (an account) పల్కు palcu (a word) the form (Telugu characters) is the second shape of K. Thus మ is M but the second shape is (Telugu characters) as in the name మన్మథ​ Manmatha, (Cupid) or మర్మం marmam, a secret.

The following are the letters with their second shapes, some of which (as in బ​ B) are nearly the same as the capital shapes.

క్క​ క్ఖ​ గ్గ​ ద్ఘ​, చ్చ​, చ్ఛ​ జ్జ​, జ్ఝ​, ఙ్ఞ​, ట్ట​, ట్ఠ​, డ్డ​, డ్ఢ​ ణ్ణ​ or ణ్న త్త​ త్థ​ ద్ద​ ద్ధ​ న్న​ ప్ప​ ప్ఫ​ బ్బ​ బ్భ​ మ్మ​ య్య​ ర్ర​ ల్ల​ వ్వ​ శ్శ​ స్స​.

In some of these combinations I have given the upper letter different from he lower (as క్ఖ) because the other combinations (as ఖ్ఖ​ or ఝ్ఝ​) are not such as ought to be used, though they sometimes occur in writing.

The pronunciation of some consonants is peculiar. Thus చ​ cha and జ ja are sometimes softened into ça (or tsa, as in but-some) and z or ds (as in sword's-end). The softer sounds, ça and za, are peculiar to Telugu and the harder sounds cha, ja, originate in sanscrit. Nor can any Sanscrit word use the soft sounds.

Thus చంద్రుడు Chandrudu the moon చాకచక్యం chācachakiam brilliancy చొద్యం chodyam, marvel, miracle, give the hard sound of Ch. And జలం jalam water, జాలం jālam a net జూదం jūdam dice-play, give the hard sound of J.

The following words, being Telugu, give the soft sounds; చలం çalam anger చాచుట​ çāçuta to extend చోటు çōtu a place వచ్చుట​ vaççuta to come: which might be spelt in English letters tsalam, tsātsuta, tsōtu, vatsuta.

And the soft sound (dz) of జ is perceived in the Telugu words జబ్బు slow జాబు zābu, a letter or epistle. జోడు zōdu a pair.

The hard sounds, Ch and J are used in Telugu words only if the vowel is sharp: and the sharp vowels are ి I and ె E whether short or long. Accordingly in the words చిప్ప​ chippa a plate చీమ​ chīma an ant, చీకటి chīkati, dark, చెప్పుట​ chepputa to say, చేరుట​ chēruta to arrive, జిలుగు jilugu small (as hand writing) జీడి jīdi sap, juice జెముడు jemudu the milk-hedge plant, the letter జ​ is sounded as J not Z.

In some grammars the marks ౧ and ౨ (1 and 2) have been placed over these letters: one denoting the soft sound, the other the sharp accent. But the principle is so easily understood that marks are superfluous.

In the rustic or ancient pronunciation the Telugus use the soft sounds alone. Thus we frequently hear the words చిన్న​ chinna, చెప్పు cheppu, జిలుగు jilugu, జెముడు jemudu pronounced çinna, çeppu, zilugu, zemudu. They in like manner mispronounce Sanscrit words.

The mutation of ça, into tsa is obvious in the verb: where the participle చేయుచు chē-yu-tsu is at pleasure spelt చేస్తు chēstu: wherein the sounds of s and t change places.

The letters ట T, డ D and ణ N are harder and the letters త T ద D and న N are softer than the sound they have in English. Sir William Jones used an accent (t′ t′h d′ d′h n′) to denote these letters. Others have more conveniently placed a dot (ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ) under the harder sound.

The nasal sound ఙ​ gna or ng occurs in the common word వాఙ్మూలం vang-mulam a deposition or statement. Like all other nasals it is usually changed into ం as in the word అంగం angam, the body.

The nasal of the second varga or class, is ఞ and never appears alone: being always written under the letter జ J, as in the word జ్ఞాపకం jnāpacam recollection and జ్ఞానం jnānam, knowledge, సంజ్ఞ​ san-jna a sign; which is usually pronounced సౌగ్య​ sau-gya.

The letter య Y is in Telugu and Sanscrit a consonant, and our using it as a vowel in English sometimes misleads us in spelling. It is exemplified in these Telugu words.

చేయుట chē-yu-ta to do. కోయుట​ co-yu-ta to cut, పొయ్యె poyyĕ he went అయ్యా ayyā Sir. In Sanscrit words it has the same sound, as శయ్య​ sayya a couch యోగ్యం y​ōgyam (that is, yōg-yam) fitting; త్యాగం tyāgam (that is tya-gam, a dissyllable) separation మర్యద​ manner జ్యోతిష​ jyo-ti-sha astrological.

The illiterate Telugus often change the broad vowel E into Ya. Thus పేట​ pēta suburbs is wrongly written ప్యాట​ pya-ta. The verb to do చేయడం chēyadam, is vulgarly written and pronounced చ్యాయడం chya-ya-dam.

The letter R has three sounds and several shapes. The vowel R though declared by grammarians to differ from the consonant R in sound, is not perceptibly diverse. For the sake of distinction some call ర​ the common R, because the letter ఱ (now obsolete) is the uncommon form.

Those who prefer the obsolete letter spell gurram, carra, parra, barrĕ (a horse, a stick, a fen, a she buffalo) in this manner గుఱ్ఱం, కఱ్ఱ​, పఱ్ఱ​, బఱ్ఱె but the better spelling is గుర్ర​, కర్ర​, పర్ర​, బర్రె which all understand at once while the uncommon form (commonly called బండి రెఫ​ bandi repha, or large R) is found only in a few manuscripts of poems. Indeed the shape ఱ as already pointed out is now used for the vowel U and accordingly ఱ॥ is the usual contraction for the word ఉత్తరుపు an answer.

In the English words art, part, short, hard, curl, girl, pearl we do not pronounce the R because followed by another consonant. But in the languages of India the R in such places must be distinctly enunciated, (in the Scoth manner) or natives will not understand what we say. Example:— కర్త​ carta, lord కర్మం carmam deed, (Telugu characters) purn'a full సర్పం sarpam a serpent (Telugu characters) archacudu a priest.

Some ancient Telugu grammarians wish to exclude the sign (Telugu characters) for R, or desire to confine it to Sanscrit words alone. Thus in the name Arcot they direct us to write అర్కాటు not (Telugu characters). But such niceties are superfluous and we may write whichever form is most convenient. I mention this and a few other rules only because native instructors attach them to a very undue importance.

The letters ల and ళ​ ​are the soft and hard sounds of L. The soft sound has no peculiarity: but the harder sound is enunciated by turning the tongue upwards and backwards so as to give a harsh guttural sound. It is expressed by an accent l′ or a dot underneath as ḷ.

The three letters represented by శ sa ష sha and స​ sa differ much in sound. The first is a little softer and the second rather harder than the English sound sh (as in shall) or the French cha (as in chacun, or, chéri). The last, స is simple S. The three are denominated thus: శాంతిశకారం santi-sa-caram, that is, శ. The కష్టషకారం cashta-shacaram that is ష and the సులభసకారం sulabha sacaram, denoting స.

Some call these the శివశకారం, the విష్ణుషకారం and the వ్యాససకారం, denominating the letters from well known names (Siva, Vishnu, and Vyāsa) wherein they occur. Any other names which use these letters would answer equally well. Some specific names are requisite, and the phrases by learned Hindus (labial, dental, and palatal) do not convey the distinction with sufficient clearness. The శ​ is expressed by the accent or the dot, viz s′ or ṣ.

Telugu criticks assert that the letters శ​ and ష​ Santa and Cashtam are peculiar to sanscrit words. But this is contrary to the use of the nation and the common words వలశినది valasinadi (il faut, must) శానా sānā (much) always use the Siva sound.

Sanscrit words are frequently mispronounced, as regards these letters, by the uneducated Telugus who perpetually mistake the common sanscrit words శ్రీ sri blessed and స్త్రీ stree woman and often write one for the other.

The consonant H requires particular notice because in applying the dirgham it uses peculiar forms—as will now be shewn. హ ha, హా ha, హి hi, హీ hī, or (Telugu characters) hī, హు hu, హూ hū హృ hri, హె hĕ, హే hē, హై hai, హొ hŏ, హో hō (which closley resembles hhē) హౌ how. I omit vowels ఋ and ఌ because not in use.

It is sometimes pronounced as the letter F. Thus జింహ్వ​ jihva (pronounced jifva) the tongue అహ్లాదం ahlādam (aflādam) delight. It some times changes places, in pronunciation, with the letter written under it. Thus the name బ్రహ్మ​ Bramha (a name of God) is written Brahma. And the name for a bramin is written బ్రాహ్మణుడు brāhmanudu but pronounced brāmhanudu.

When the letter H is silent that is, is without a vowel, it is expressed by two dots or circles: viz ః which is called విసర్గః visargah. And it is the custom to repeat after this is the vowel that precedes it: thus స్వతః swatah (voluntarily) is pronounced స్వతహ​ swataha రామః Ramah (a proper name) is pronounced Ramaha as if it was written రామహ​.

The letter క్ష​ csha, more conveniently expressed by X, is a mere compound of క K and ష sha, and is sounded like ct in action, direction, section. Thus అక్షం axam the eye. Elsewhere it is sounded like చ​ cha. Thus సూక్ష్మమ్, సాక్షి, సాక్ష్యం sooxmam, fine sāxi, a witness and saxyam, testimony, are sounded nearly as sooch-mam, sarchee, sarch-yam. The letter x is in Spanish pronounced like sh. Thus Texiera and Xeres are sounded Tesshira and Sheres.