A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity
DUBLIN UNIVERSITY PRESS SERIES.
A HISTORY
OF THE
THEORIES OF AETHER AND ELECTRICITY
FROM THE AGE OF DESCARTES TO THE CLOSE OF
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
BY
E. T. WHITTAKER,
Hon. Sc. D. (Dubl.); F. R. S.; Royal Astronomer of Ireland.
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.,
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON,
NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA.
HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO., Ltd., DUBLIN.
1910.
DUBLIN:
PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS,
BY PONSONBY AND GIBBS.
The author desires to record his gratitude to Mr. W. W. Rouse Ball, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and to Professor W. McF. Orr, F. R. S., of the Royal College of Science for Ireland; these friends have read the proof-sheets, and have made many helpful suggestions and criticisms.
Thanks are also due to the Board of Trinity College, Dublin, for the financial assistance which made possible the publication of the work.
Contents.
The Theory of the Aether in the Seventeenth Century.
Page
Matter and aether,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
1 |
The physical writings of Descartes,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
2 |
Early history of magnetism : Petrus Peregrinus, Gilbert, Descartes,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
7 |
Fermat attacks Descartes' theory of light: the principle of least time,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
10 |
Hooke's undulatory theory: the advance of wave-fronts,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
11 |
Newton overthrows Hooke's theory of colours,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
15 |
Conception of the aether in the writings of Newton,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
17 |
Newton's theories of the periodicity of homogeneous light, and of fits of easy transmission,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
20 |
The velocity of light: Galileo, Roemer,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
21 |
Huygens' Traité de la lumière: his theories of the propagation of waves, and of crystalline optics,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
22 |
Newton shows that rays obtained by double refraction have sides: his objections to the undulatory theory,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
28 |
Electric and Magnetic Science, Prior to the Introduction of the Potentials.
The electrical researches of Gilbert: the theory of emanations,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
29 |
State of physical science in the first half of the eighteenth century,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
32 |
Gray discovers electric conduction: Desaguliers,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
37 |
The electric fluid,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
38 |
Du Fay distinguishes vitreous and resinous electricity,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
39 |
Nollet's effluent and affluent streams,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
40 |
The Leyden phial,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
41 |
The one-fluid theory: ideas of Watson and Franklin,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
42 |
Final overthrow by Aepinus of the doctrine of effluvia,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
48 |
Priestley discovers the law of electrostatic force,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
50 |
Cavendish,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
51 |
Michell discovers the law of magnetic force,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
54 |
The two-fluid theory: Coulomb,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
56 |
Limited mobility of the magnetic fluids,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
58 |
Poisson's mathematical theory of electrostatics,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
59 |
The equivalent surface- and volume-distributions of magnetism: Poisson's theory of magnetic induction,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
64 |
Green's Nottingham memoir,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
65 |
Galvanism, from Galvani to Ohm.
Sulzer's discovery,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
67 |
Galvanic phenomena,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
68 |
Rival hypotheses regarding the galvanic fluid,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
70 |
The voltaic pile,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
72 |
Nicholson and Carlisle decompose water voltaically,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
75 |
Davy's chemical theory of the pile,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
76 |
Grothuss' chain,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
78 |
De La Rive's hypothesis,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
79 |
Berzelius' scheme of electro-chemistry,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
80 |
Early attempts to discover a connexion between electricity and magnetism,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
83 |
Oersted's experiment: his explanation of it,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
85 |
The law of Biot and Savart,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
86 |
The researches of Ampère on electrodynamics,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
87 |
Seebeck's phenomenon,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
90 |
Davy's researches on conducting power,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
94 |
Ohm's theory: electroscopic force,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
95 |
The Luminiferous Medium, from Bradley to Fresnel.
Bradley discovers aberration,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
99 |
John Bernoulli's model of the aether,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
100 |
Maupertuis and the principle of least action,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
102 |
Views of Euler, Courtivron, Melvill,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
104 |
Young defends the undulatory theory, and explains the colours of thin plates,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
105 |
Laplace supplies a corpuscular theory of double refraction,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
109 |
Young proposes a dynamical theory of light in crystals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
110 |
Researches of Malus on polarization,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
111 |
Recognition of biaxal crystals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
113 |
Fresnel successfully explains diffraction,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
113 |
His theory of the relatire motion of aether and matter,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
115 |
Young suggests the transversality of the vibrations of light,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
121 |
Fresnel discusses the dynamics of transverse vibrations
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
123 |
Fresnel's theory of the propagation of light in crystals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
123 |
Hamilton predicts conical refraction,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
131 |
Fresnel's theory of reflexion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
133 |
The Aether as an Elastic Solid.
Astronomical objection to the elastic-solid theory: Stokes' hypothesis.
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
137 |
Navier and Cauchy discover the equation of vibration of an elastic solid,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
139 |
Poisson distinguishes condensational and distortional waves,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
141 |
Cauchy's first and second theories of light in crystals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
143 |
Cauchy's first theory of reflexion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
145 |
His second theory of reflexion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
147 |
The theory of reflexion of MacCullagh and Neumann,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
148 |
Green discovers the correct conditions at the boundaries,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
151 |
Green's theory of reflexion : objections to it,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
152 |
MacCullagh introduces a new type of elastic solid,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
154 |
W. Thomson's model of a rotationally-elastic body,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
157 |
Cauchy's third theory of reflexion: the contractile aether,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
158 |
Later work of W. Thomson and others on the contractile aether,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
159 |
Green's first and second theories of light in crystals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
161 |
Influence of Green,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
167 |
Researches of Stokes on the relation of the direction of vibration of light to its plane of polarization,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
168 |
The hypothesis of aeolotropic inertia,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
171 |
Rotation of the plane of polarization of light by active bodies,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
173 |
MacCullagh's theory of natural rotatory power,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
175 |
MacCullagh's and Cauchy's theory of metallic retlexion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
177 |
Extension of the elastic-solid theory to metals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
179 |
Lord Rayleigh's objection,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
181 |
Cauchy's theory of dispersion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
182 |
Boussinesq's elastic-solid theory,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
185 |
Faraday.
Discovery of induced currents: lines of magnetic force,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
189 |
Self-induction,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
193 |
Identity of frictional and voltaic electricity: Faraday's views on the nature of electricity,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
194 |
Electro-chemistry,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
197 |
Controversy between the adherents of the chemical and contact hypotheses,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
201 |
The properties of dielectrics,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
206 |
Theory of dielectric polarization : Faraday, W. Thomson, and Mosgotti,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
211 |
The connexion between magnetism and light,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
213 |
Airy's theory of magnetic rotatory polarization,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
214 |
Faraday's Thoughts on Ray-Vibrations,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
217 |
Researches of Faraday and Plücker on diamagnetism,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
218 |
The Mathematical Electricians of the Middle of the Nineteenth Century.
F. Neumann's theory of induced currents: the electrodynamic potential,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
222 |
W. Weber's theory of electrons,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
225 |
Riemann's law,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
231 |
Proposals to modify the law of gravitation,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
232 |
Weber's theory of paramagnetism and diamagnetism: later theories,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
234 |
Joule's law: energetics of the voltaic cell,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
239 |
Researches of Helmholtz on electrostatic and electrodynamic energy,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
242 |
W. Thomson distinguishes the circuital and irrotational magnetic vectors,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
244 |
His theory of magnecrystallic action,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
245 |
His formula for the energy of a magnetic field,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
247 |
Extension of this formula to the case of fields produced by currents,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
249 |
Kirchhoff identifies Ohm's electroscopic force with electrostatic potential,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
251 |
The discharge of a Leyden jar: W. Thomson's theory,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
253 |
The velocity of electricity and the propagation of telegraphic signals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
254 |
Clausius' law of force between electric charges : crucial experiments,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
261 |
Nature of the current,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
263 |
The thermo-electric researches of Peltier and W. Thomson,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
264 |
Maxwell.
Gauss and Riemann on the propagation of electric actions,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
268 |
Analogies suggested by W. Thomson,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
269 |
Maxwell's hydrodynamical analogy,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
271 |
The vector potential,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
273 |
Linear and rotatory interpretations of magnetism,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
274 |
Maxwell's mechanical model of the electromagnetic field,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
276 |
Electric displacement,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
279 |
Similarity of electric vibrations to those of light,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
281 |
Connexion of refractive index and specific inductive capacity,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
283 |
Maxwell's memoir of 1864,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
284 |
The propagation of electric disturbances in crystals and in metals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
288 |
Anomalous dispersion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
291 |
The Maxwell-Sellmeier theory of dispersion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
292 |
Imperfections of the electromagnetic theory of light,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
295 |
The theory of L. Lorenz,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
297 |
Maxwell's theory of stress in the electric field,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
300 |
The pressure of radiation,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
303 |
Maxwell's theory of the magnetic rotation of light,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
307 |
Models of the Aether.
Analogies in which a rotatory character is attributed to magnetism,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
310 |
Models in which magnetic force is represented as a linear velocity,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
311 |
Researches of W. Thomson, Bjerknes, and Leahy, on pulsating and oscillating bodies,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
316 |
MacCullagh's quasi-elastic solid as a model of the electric medium,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
318 |
The Tall effect,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
320 |
Models of Riemann and FitzGerald,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
324 |
Vortex-atoms,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
326 |
The vortex-sponge theory of the aether: researches of W. Thomson, FitzGerald, and Hicks,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
327 |
The Followers of Maxwell.
Helmholtz and H. A. Lorentz supply an electromagnetic theory of reflexion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
337 |
Crucial experiments of Helmholtz and Schiller,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
338 |
Convection-currents: Rowland's experiments,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
339 |
The moving charged sphere: researches of J.J. Thomson, FitzGerald, and Heaviside,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
310 |
Conduction of rapidly-alternating currents,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
344 |
FitzGerald devises the magnetic radiator,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
345 |
Poynting's theorem,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
347 |
Poynting and J.J. Thomson develop the theory of moving lines of force,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
349 |
Mechanical momentum in the electromagnetic field,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
352 |
Now derivation of Maxwell's equations by Hertz,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
333 |
Hertz's assumptions and Weber's theory,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
356 |
Experiments of Hertz on electric waves,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
357 |
The memoirs of Hertz and Heaviside on fields in which material bodies are in motion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
365 |
The current of dielectric convection,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
367 |
Kerr's magneto-optic phenomenon,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
368 |
Rowland's theory of magneto-optics,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
369 |
The rotation of the plane of polarization in naturally active bodies,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
370 |
Conduction in Solutions and Gases, from Faraday to J. J. Thomson.
The hypothesis of Williamson and Clausius,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
372 |
Migration of the ions,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
373 |
The researches of Hittorf and Kohlrausch,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
374 |
Polarization of electrodes,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
375 |
Electrocapillarity,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
376 |
Single differences of potential,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
379 |
Helmholtz' theory of concentration-cells,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
381 |
Arrhonius' hypothesis,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
383 |
The researches of Nernst,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
386 |
Earlier investigations of the discharge in rarefied gases,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
390 |
Faraday observes the dark space,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
391 |
Researches of Plücker, Hittorf, Goldstein, and Varley, on the cathode rays,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
393 |
Crookes and the fourth state of matter,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
394 |
Objections and alternatives to the charged-particle theory of cathode rays,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
395 |
Giese's and Schuster's ionic theory of conduction in gases,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
397 |
J.J. Thomson measures the velocity of cathode rays,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
400 |
Discovery of X-rays: hypotheses regarding them,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
401 |
Further researches of J.J. Thomson on cathode rays: the ratio ,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
404 |
Vitreous and resinous electricity,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
406 |
Determination of the ionic charge by J. J. Thomson,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
407 |
Becquerel's radiation: discovery of radio-active substances,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
408 |
The Theory of Aether and Electrons in the Closing Years of the Nineteenth Century.
Stokes' theory of aethereal motion near moving bodies,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
411 |
Astronomical phenomena in which the velocity of light is involved,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
413 |
Crucial experiments relating to the optics of moving bodies,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
416 |
Lorentz' theory of electrons,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
419 |
The current of dielectric convection: Röntgon's experiment,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
426 |
The electronic theory of dispersion,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
428 |
Deduction of Fresnel's formula fron the theory of electrons,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
430 |
Experimental verification of Lorentz' hypothesis,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
431 |
FitzGerald's explanation of Michelson's experiment,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
432 |
Lorentz treatise of 1895,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
433 |
Expression of the potentials in terms of the electronic charges,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
436 |
Further experiments on the relative motion of earth and aether,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
437 |
Extension of Lorentz transformation : Larmor discovers its connexion with FitzGerald's hypothesis of contraction,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
440 |
Examination of the supposed primacy of the original variables: fixity relative to the aether: the principle of relativity,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
444 |
The phenomenon of Zeeman,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
449 |
Connexion of Zeeman's effect with the magnetic rotation of light
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
452 |
The optical properties of metals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
454 |
The electronic theory of metals,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
456 |
Thermionics,
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
464 |
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
|
470 |
Memorandum on Notation
Vectors are denoted by letters in clarendon type, as E.
The three components of a vector E are denoted by Ex, Ey, Ez, and the magnitude of the vector is denoted by E, so that
The vector product of two vectors E and H, which is denoted by [E.H], is the vector whose components are (EyHz - EzHy, EzHx - ExHz, ExHy - EyHx). Its direction is at right angles to the direction of E and H, its magnitude is represented by twice the area of the triangle formed by them.
The scalar product of two vectors E and H is ExHx + EyHy + EzHz. It is denoted by (E.H).
The quantity is denoted by div E.
The vector whose components are
is denoted by curl E.
If V denote a scalar quantity, the vector whose components are is denoted by grad V.
The symbol ∇ is used to denote the vector operator whose components are , , .
Differentiation with respect to the time is frequently indicated by a dot placed over the symbol of the variable which is differentiated.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1956, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 67 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
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