American History Told by Contemporaries/Volume 2/Chapter 18
CHAPTER XVIII — THE INDIANS
113. The Life of an Indian Trader (1735-1775)
BY JAMES ADAIR (1775)
Adair spent a great part of his life among the Indians, and his account of them is one of the best that we have. — Bibliography : Tyler, American Literature, I, 154-157; Channing and Hart, Guide, §§ 80, 104, 131. — For other extracts on the Indians, see Contemporaries, I, Index.
I SHALL now describe the domestic life of the Indians, and the traders among them. The Indians settle themselves in towns or villages after an easy manner ; the houses are not too close to incommode one another, nor too far distant for social defence. If the nation where the English traders reside, is at war with the French, or their red confederates, which is the same, their houses are built in the middle of the town, if desired, on account of greater security. But if they are at peace with each other, both the Indians and traders chuse to settle at a very convenient distance, for the sake of their live stock, especially the latter, for the Indian youth are as destructive to the pigs and poultry, as so many young wolves or foxes. Their parents now only give them ill names for such misconduct, calling them mad ; but the mischievous, and thievish, were formerly sure to be dry-scratched, which punishment hath been already described.
Most of the Indians have clean, neat, dwelling houses, white-washed within and without, either with decayed oyster-shells, coarse-chalk, or white marly clay ; one or other of which, each of our Indian nations abounds with, be they ever so far distant from the sea-shore : the Indians, as well as the traders, usually decorate their summer-houses with this favourite white-wash. — The former have likewise each a corn-house, fowl-house, and a hot-house, or stove for winter : and so have the traders likewise separate store-houses for their goods, as well as to contain the proper remittances received in exchange.
The traders hot-houses are appropriated to their young-rising prolific family, and their well-pleased attendants, who are always as kindly treated as brethren ; and their various buildings, are like towers in cities, beyond the common size of those of the Indians. Before the Indians were corrupted by mercenary empirics, their good sense led them to esteem the traders among them as their second sun, warming their backs with the British fleeces, and keeping in their candle of life both by plentiful support, and continual protection and safety, from the fire-arms and ammunition which they annually brought to them. While the Indians were simple in manners, and uncorrupt in morals, the traders could not be reckoned unhappy ; for they were kindly treated, and watchfully guarded, by a society of friendly and sagacious people, and possessed all the needful things to make a reasonable life easy. Through all the Indian countries, every person lives at his own choice, not being forced in the least degree to any thing contrary to his own inclination. Before that most impolitic step of giving general licences took place, only a sufficient number of orderly reputable traders were allowed to traffic, and reside among the Indians : by which means the last were kept under proper restraint, were easy in their minds, and peaceable, on account of the plain honest lessons daily inculcated on them. But at present, most of their countries swarm with white people, who are generally the dregs and off-scourings of our colonies. The description is so exceedingly disagreeable, that I shall only observe, the greater part of them could notably distinguish themselves, among the most profligate by land or sea, no day of the week excepted, indeed the sabbath day is the worst. This is the true situation of our Indian affairs, — the unavoidable result of ignorant and wicked clergymen settled as Missionaries on the frontiers ; and of that pernicious practice of general licences, by which crowds of disorderly people infest the Indian countries, corrupt their morals, and put their civilization out of the power of common means : the worst and meanest may readily get nominal security to intitle them to a trading licence ; and ill uses are made of them with impunity.
Till of late years, the honest traders lived among the Indians in the greatest plenty. They abounded with hogs, which made very firm streaked bacon, and much preferable to that in the English settlements chiefly owing to the acorns and hiccory-nuts they feed on : but the Indians are now grown so proud and lazy, by having goods too cheap and plenty, that very few raise any. There are at least five times the number of trading houses in all the western Indian nations, since general licences, through the wisdom of our civil rulers, were first granted, than was formerly, while experience directed South-Carolina to pursue and enforce proper measures. Such a number of lewd, idle white savages are very hurtful to the honest part of the traders, by heightening the value of vegetables, especially in the time of light crops, to an exorbitant price ; for by inebriating the Indians with their nominally prohibited, and poisoning spirits, they purchase the necessaries of life, at four or five hundred per cent cheaper, than the orderly traders ; which is a great check to the few, who have a love to the welfare of their country, and strictly observe the laws of trade. Besides, those men decoy the intoxicated savages to defraud the old fair dealer every winter, of many thousand pounds of drest deer-skins, by the enchanting force of liquors, which, on account of their indolence and improvident disposition, interest absolutely required him to credit them for : but when at the end of their mad career, they open their distracted eyes, and bitterly inveigh against the tempting authors of their nakedness, then there is the same necessity of trusting them a-new for the next season s hunt, and likewise the same improbability, either of better success, or any sort of redress ; for family jobs must not be interrupted or retarded on any account. . . .
Buffalo flesh is nothing but beef of a coarser grain, though of a sweeter taste than the tame sort : elk-flesh has the like affinity to venison. The deer are very fat in winter, by reason of the great quantities of chesnuts, and various sorts of acorns, that cover the boundless woods. Though most of the traders who go to the remote Indian countries, have tame stock, as already described, and are very expert at fire-arms and ranging the woods a hunting ; yet every servant that each of them fits out for the winter s hunt, brings home to his master a large heap of fat barbecued briskets, rumps, and tongues of buffalo and deer, as well as plenty of bear-ribs, which are piled on large racks : these are laid up and used not for necessity, but for the sake of variety. The traders carry up also plenty of chocolate, coffee, and sugar, which enables them with their numberless quantity of fowls-eggs, fruit, &c. to have puddings, pyes, pasties, fritters, and many other articles of the like kind, in as great plenty, as in the English settlements. Several of the Indians produce sugar out of the sweet maple-tree, by making an incision, draining the juice, and boiling it to a proper consistence.
Though in most of the Indian nations, the water is good, because of their high situation, yet the traders very seldom drink any of it at home ; for the women beat in mortars their flinty corn, till all the husks are taken off, which having well sifted and fanned, they boil in large earthen pots ; then straining off the thinnest part into a pot, they mix it with cold water, till it is sufficiently liquid for drinking : and when cold, it is both pleasant and very nourishing ; and is much liked even by the genteel strangers. The Indians always used mortars, instead of mills, and they had them, with almost every other convenience, when we first opened a trade with them — they cautiously burned a large log, to a proper level and length, placed fire a-top, and wet mortar round it, in order to give the utensil a proper form : and when the fire was extinguished, or occasion required, they chopped the inside with their stone-instruments, patiently continuing the slow process, till they finished the machine to the intended purpose. I have the pleasure of writing this by the side of a Chikkasah female, as great a princess as ever lived among the ancient Peruvians, or Mexicans, and she bids me be sure not to mark the paper wrong, after the manner of most of the traders ; otherwise, it will spoil the making good bread, or hommony, and of course beget the ill-will of our white women.
James Adair, The History of the American Indians (London, 1775), 412-416 passim.
114. Small Pox and Brandy among the Indians (1749)
BY PROFESSOR PETER KALM
The extract illustrates the two most destructive agents against the Indian tribes. — For Kalm, see No. 112 above.
March the 17th.
AT the first arrival of the Swedes in this country, and long after that time, it was filled with Indians. But as the Europeans proceeded to cultivate the land, the Indians sold their land, and went further into the country. But in reality few of the Indians really left the country in this manner ; most of them ended their days before, either by wars among themselves, or by the small-pox, a disease which the Indians were unacquainted with before their commerce with the Europeans, and which since that time has killed incredible numbers of them. For though they can heal wounds and other external hurts, yet they know not how to proceed with fevers, or in general with internal diseases. One can imagine, how ill they would succeed with the cure of the small-pox, when as soon as the pustules appeared, they leaped naked into the cold water of the rivers, lakes, or fountains, and either dived over head into it, or poured it over their body in great abundance, in order to cool the heat of the fever. In the same manner they carry their children, when they have the small-pox, into the water and duck them. But brandy has killed most of the Indians. This liquor was likewise entirely unknown to them, before the Europeans came hither ; but after they had tasted it, they could never get enough of it. A man can hardly have a greater desire of a thing, than the Indians have of brandy. I have heard them say, that to die by drinking brandy, was a desirable and an honourable death ; and indeed tis no very uncommon thing to kill themselves by drinking this liquor to excess.
Peter Kalm, Travels into North America (London, 1771), II, 93-95.
115. A Flowery Speech to the Six Nations (1753)
BY SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON
The author of this piece lived among the Indians in the Mohawk valley, as a kind of feudal chieftain and representative of the New York government. —Bibliography: Winsor, Narrative and Critical History, V, 583-584; W. E. Griffis, Sir William Johnson and the Six Nations.
HERE follows what I said to the General Convention of the Six Nations at Onondaga spoke by Hendrick the Chief of the Mohawks.
Bretheren of the Six Nations.
The great concern I am under for the loss of our three great and beloved Brothers Caghniagarota, Onughsadego and Gahusquerowana, who in their time made your Assembly compleat, makes it incumbent on me to condole their death, and as it is a great loss to us in general, I do by these three Belts of Wampum dry up your tears that we may see each other, clear your throats that we may Speak together, and wash away their blood out of our sight, and cover their bones with these Strow'd Blankets
Here gave the three Belts of Wampum and three Blanketts of Strowd. Bretheren of the Six Nations
I am now to acquaint you that the indisposition of the present Governor and the expectation of the sudden arrival of a new one, has occasioned the interview, proposed at Albany between you and him this summer, to be deferred, upon which I am commissioned to treat with you and at the same time to assure you that the succeeding Governor will meet you as soon as he conveniently can, with presents as usual. You will then have an opportunity of laying before him whatever is amiss, which will be redressed you may depend on, without any unnecessary delay ; till then I expect all of you will live in perfect harmony with yr Bretheren ye English.A Belt.
Bretheren of the Six Nations.
It grieves me sorely to find the road hither so grown up with weeds for want of being used, & your fire almost expiring at Onondaga, where it was agreed by the wisdom of our Ancestors that it should never be extinguished : You know it was a saying among us that when the Fire was out here, you would be no longer a people ; I am now sent by Your Brother the Governor to clear the Road & make the fire with such wood as will never burn out, and I earnestly desire you would take care to keep it up, so as to be found always the same when he shall send among you.A Belt.
Bretheren of the Six Nations.
I have now renewed the Fire, swept clean all your rooms with a new White Wing, and leave it hanging near the Fire place, that you may use it for cleaning all dust dirt &c which may have been brought in by Strangers, no friends to you or us.A string of Wampum.
Bretheren of the Six Nations.
I am sorry to find on my arrival among you that the fine shady Tree which was planted by your forefathers for your ease and shelter, should be now leaning, being almost blown down by Northerly winds. I shall now endeavour to set it upright that it may flourish as formerly, while the roots spread abroad ; so that when we sitt or stand on them you
will feel them shake should any storms blow, then should you be ready to secure it.A Belt.
Bretheren of the Six Nations.
Your Fire now burns clearly at the old place, the Tree of Shelter and Protection is set up & flourishes ; I must now insist upon your quench ing that fire made with brambles at Swegachey, and recall those to their proper home who have deserted thither. I can not leave disswading you from going to Canada, the French are a delusive people, always endeavouring to divide you as much as they can, nor will they let slip any opportunity of making advantage of it. 'Tis formidable news we hear that the French & some Indians are making a descent upon Ohio ; is it with your consent or leave that they proceed in this extraordinary manner, endeavouring by force of arms to dispossess your own native allies as well as your bretheren the English, and establishing themselves?A large Belt. . . .
Bretheren of the Senecas.
As you have always been looked upon as the door of the Six Nations where all news, especially from the Westward and Southward must enter and go out, we dont hear this door open as we used to do formerly, and believe it to be worn out, & think it necessary to hang on a new one of such wood as will never decay ; the noise of which when it opens should alarm all the Confederacy. I must now desire you that what ever you hear of consequence you would send it very distinctly to the Sachems of Onondaga who will send it directly to your Bretheren. I require also as you are nearest to the Western Tribes of Indians that you will endeavour all in your power to draw as many of them into our interest as possibly you can, by which means the Six Nations may continue their strength & credit.A Belt. . . .
Bretheren of the Six Nations.
You must imagine I was much troubled when immediately after my appointment to meet you at Onondaga, to renew and put in order every thing relating to your affairs, to hear that some of your people were returned with scalp and prisoners from the Catabaws, with whom you made so solemn a peace last year in my presence, which pleased all your bretheren the English upon this Continent, the King your Father also approved of it. Now what an everlasting shame must it be to the Six Nations if this bloody affair be not immediately made up, if it be possible. I expect at least that you return the prisoners if any you have, and committ no further hostilities on that Nation.A Belt. . . .
Bretheren of the Six Nations.
I take this opportunity to return you the three Belts of Wampum sent by you to the Governor with a request to hinder the Rum from coming among You. He was very glad to gratifie you in it, and that you had seen the ill consequences of that bewitching liquor, and hopes you will continue in that resolution always. The proclamation forbidding Rum to be sent or sold any where among you (except at Oswego) is already published.Here returned them their Three Belts.
Bretheren of the Six Nations.
I have now only to recommend what I have said in your Brother the Governor s name to your serious consideration, and when you are prepared to return an answer, I should be glad to hear it by the Lake where I am encamped and have a small present for you, and some provision for your Children.
E. B. O'Callaghan, editor, Documents relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York (Albany, 1855), VI, 810-812 passim.
116. "A Concise Character of the Indians" (1767)BY CAPTAIN JONATHAN CARVER
Carver was a British officer who formed a plan for crossing the continent to the Pacific, but was stopped in the upper Mississippi country. He was the first English writer who visited the northwestern tribes. — Bibliography : Tyler, Literary History of the Revolution, I, 141-150.
THE character of the Indians, like that of other uncivilized nations, is composed of a mixture of ferocity and gentleness. They are at once guided by passions and appetites, which they hold in common with the fiercest beasts that inhabit their woods, and are possessed of virtues which do honour to human nature.
In the following estimate I shall endeavour to forget on the one hand the prejudices of Europeans, who usually annex to the word Indian epithets that are disgraceful to human nature, and who view them in no other light than as savages and cannibals ; whilst with equal care I avoid any partiality towards them, as some must naturally arise from the favourable reception I met with during my stay among them.
At the same time I shall confine my remarks to the nations inhabiting only the western regions, such as the Naudowessies, the Ottagaumies, the Chipéways, the Winnebagoes, and the Saukies : for as throughout that diversity of climates the extensive continent of America is composed of, there are people of different dispositions and various characters, it would be incompatible with my present undertaking to treat of all these, and to give a general view of them as a conjunctive body.
That the Indians are of a cruel, revengeful, inexorable disposition, that they will watch whole days unmindful of the calls of nature, and make their way through pathless, and almost unbounded woods, subsisting only on the scanty produce of them/to pursue and revenge themselves of an enemy, that they hear unmoved the piercing cries of such as unhappily fall into their hands, and receive a diabolical pleasure from the tortures they inflict on their prisoners, I readily grant ; but let us look on the reverse of this terrifying picture, and we shall find them temperate both in their diet and potations (it must be remembered, that I speak of those tribes who have little communication with Europeans) that they withstand, with unexampled patience, the attacks of hunger, or the inclemency of the seasons, and esteem the gratification of their appetites, but as a secondary consideration.
We shall likewise see them sociable and humane to those whom they consider as their friends, and even to their adopted enemies ; and ready to partake with them of the last morsel, or to risk their lives in their defence.
In contradiction to the report of many other travellers, all of which have been tinctured with prejudice, I can assert, that notwithstanding the apparent indifference with which an Indian meets his wife and children after a long absence, an indifference proceeding rather from custom than insensibility, he is not unmindful of the claims either of connubial or parental tenderness; the little story I have introduced in the preceding chapter of the Naudowessie woman lamenting her child, and the immature death of the father, will elucidate this point, and enforce the assertion much better than the most studied arguments I can make use of.
Accustomed from their youth to innumerable hardships, they soon become superior to a sense of danger or the dread of death ; and their fortitude, implanted by nature, and nurtured by example, by precept, and accident, never experiences a moment's allay.
Though slothful and inactive whilst their store of provision remains unexhausted, and their foes are at a distance, they are indefatigable and persevering in pursuit of their game, or in circumventing their enemies.
If they are artful and designing, and ready to take every advantage, if they are cool and deliberate in their councils, and cautious in the extreme either of discovering their sentiments, or of revealing a secret, they might at the same time boast of possessing qualifications of a more animated nature, of the sagacity of a hound, the penetrating sight of a lynx, the cunning of the fox, the agility of a bounding roe, and the unconquerable fierceness of the tyger.
In their public characters, as forming part of a community, they possess an attachment for that band to which they belong, unknown to the inhabitants of any other country. They combine, as if they were actuated only by one soul, against the enemies of their nation, and banish from their minds every consideration opposed to this. They consult without unnecessary opposition, or without giving way to the excitements of envy or ambition, on the measures necessary to be pursued for the destruction of those who have drawn on themselves their displeasure. No selfish views ever influence their advice, or obstruct their consultations. Nor is it in the power of bribes or threats to diminish the love they bear their country.
The honour of their tribe, and the welfare of their nation, is the first and most predominant emotion of their hearts ; and from hence proceed in a great measure all their virtues and their vices. Actuated by this, they brave every danger, endure the most exquisite torments, and expire triumphing in their fortitude, not as a personal qualification, but as a national characteristic.
From thence also flow that insatiable revenge towards those with whom they are at war, and all the consequent horrors that disgrace their name. Their uncultivated minds being incapable of judging of the propriety of an action, in opposition to their passions which are totally insensible to the controuls of reason or humanity, they know not how to keep their fury within any bounds, and consequently that courage and resolution which would otherwise do them honour, degenerates into a savage ferocity.
But this short dissertation must suffice ; the limits of my work will not permit me to treat the subject more copiously, or to pursue it with a logical regularity. The observations already made by my readers on the preceding pages, will, I trust, render it unnecessary ; as by them they will be enabled to form a tolerably just idea of the people I have been describing. Experience teaches, that anecdotes, and relations of particular events, however trifling they might appear, enable us to form a truer judgment of the manners and customs of a people, and are much more declaratory of their real state, than the most studied and elaborate disquisition, without these aids.
J[onathan] Carver, Travels through the Interior Parts of North- America, in the Years 1766, 1767, and 1768 (London, 1778), 408-414.