Cassell's Illustrated History of England/Volume 1/Chapter 7
CHAPTER VII.
Reign of Alfred the Great—Wars with the Danes, who finally obtain Settlements in the Country.
It is impossible to treat of the reign of a monarch to whom England owes so much, and whose memory is still revered, without feelings of respect and veneration commensurate with the benefits he conferred upon his countrymen, whose gratitude has accorded the noblest recompense in the power of a nation to bestow—the epithet of Great.
His predecessor, as we perceive, had left the affairs of the kingdom utterly disorganised, when Alfred, who hitherto had lived in comparative obscurity, succeeded him; but that obscurity had doubtless been favourable to the development of those rich qualities of mind, which, however luxuriant and promising the soil, require time and study to ripen and perfect.
The Danes, already masters of Northumbria and East Anglia, were in the very heart of the kingdom of Wessex; and, notwithstanding the many battles Ethelred had fought with them, they were in possession of several towns; and, not only maintained their position in the island, but had reason to hope they should soon complete the conquest of it. The new monarch had only been a month on the throne, when he found himself obliged to take the field against these formidable enemies, who had advanced as far as Wilton, whither he marched to attack them. Victory for some time inclined to his side, then suddenly changed in favour of the Danes; but Alfred's loss was not so considerable as to make him despair, though the victory certainly belonged to the enemy. He laboured incessantly to put his army in condition to give them battle again, before they should be reinforced; they were astonished at his expedition, and, though victorious, sued for peace, finding themselves unable to continue the war. As they offered to march out of his dominions, on condition he would not molest them in any other part of England, Alfred accepted their offer, and gained by this treaty time to prepare against a new invasion.
The Danes, quitting Wessex, retired to London, which they had taken during the late war. Ivar was gone back to his Denmark, having left the command of the army to his brother Hubba, who, being prevented from attacking Wessex, turned his arms against Mercia. Buthred, its king, knowing he was unable to resist, since Alfred was bound not to send him any succours, thought it his wisest course to buy off the Danes with a sum of money, and save his country from their depredations. Upon the receipt of the money, they marched towards Northumbria, designing to take up their quarters with their countrymen; but their provisions running short, in consequence of the devastations they themselves had made there, they were under the necessity of returning into Mercia. Before they had left Northumbria, they deposed Egbert, whom they had placed on the throne, and put Recsige, a Danish earl, in his room. Buthred, finding they were come again into his dominions, complained of their breach of faith; but without regarding his complaints they obliged him to give them another considerable sum to save his country from the destruction it was threatened with; and no sooner was the money paid, than they fell to plundering and ravaging, and Buthred found that even his own person was in danger. The fear of falling into their hands obliged him to abandon his kingdom, and retire to Rome, where he spent the residue of his days in the English college. Mercia being thus left without a king, and Alfred being prevented by his own treaty from lending any assistance, the Danes without difficulty became masters of that kingdom, and raised Ceoluph, a servant of Buthred, to the throne, till they could otherwise dispose of it.
Aware of the slight tenure of his office, the new ruler resolved to make the utmost of his time, and so oppressed the unhappy Mercians that they suffered more from the tyranny of their own countryman than the rapacity of the conquerors.
Whilst Alfred flattered himself with the hope of enjoying comparative peace, new calamities were preparing for his unhappy country. A large party of Danes, under Halfden, landed in England, and surprised Warkam Castle, the strongest fortress in Wessex. The king was obliged to purchase his retreat. The invaders swore on the holy relics never again to set foot in Wessex—an oath which they quickly violated.
From the very nature of their government, no treaty could bind the Danes as a nation, seeing that it was composed of a variety of chiefs and petty powers, who entered into associations independent of each other. The successful return of one expedition merely proved an incentive to others of their countrymen to follow in their track.
Alfred, finding it was in vain to conclude treaties with such a perfidious race of people, resolved to take more effectual measures to secure himself from their treachery. For this purpose he convened a general assembly, and represented to them that they had nothing to trust to but their own valour and courage, to deliver them from their miseries; and urged upon them the absolute necessity of venturing their lives in defence of their country, and of sacrificing part of their estates to preserve the remainder. His eloquent remonstrances having produced the effect he expected, an army was immediately levied, with which he engaged the enemy seven times in one campaign; but as fortune was not equally favourable to him in all these engagements, he was once more constrained to treat with the invaders; and though he could have no great dependence upon their promises, it was the only way by which he could put an end to a disastrous war. The new treaty, in which the Danes undertook not to return any more into Wessex, was somewhat better kept than the former one.
The West Saxons looked upon the retreat of these formidable enemies as a great deliverance; but they were yet far from the climax of their miseries. This band, which had struck them with such terror, were scarce gone, when a new swarm arrived, under the command of Rollo, the famous Norman general, who became afterwards the scourge of France. Fortunately, Alfred was in some measure prepared to receive them; and after several attempts, Rollo, despairing of procuring a settlement in England, resolved to go in quest of one in France. In all probability, finding the best part of England in possession of his countrymen, and Alfred ready to dispute the rest with him, he imagined he had a better prospect in that country. Some superstitious chroniclers inform us it was revealed to Rollo in a dream that he should found a kingdom in France.
After his departure, Alfred enjoyed a repose, which afforded him leisure to revolve means to prevent these frequent invasions; and he ultimately determined to equip a fleet, and engage the Danes before they came to land, where they generally had the advantage; and as the latter had not contemplated being engaged at sea, their ships were only fit for transports, whereas those built by Alfred were constructed for warlike service. It was not long before he reaped the fruit of this wise precaution; for his fleet meeting with six Danish vessels, gave chase to them, and one of the largest being taken, the soldiers and mariners were thrown overboard. This first engagement was followed by a much more considerable one. 120 sail of Danish transport ships making to the shore in order to land their men, the king's fleet attacked them, and sunk the greatest part of them; and the next year another Danish fleet sailing westward, met with so violent a storm, that all the ships perished, except a few which fell into the hands of the English.
Alfred, encouraged by these successes, resolved to attack the Danes in the west, where they had fortified themselves by the taking of Exeter, and where the Cornish men had always taken part with them; and he ultimately obliged them to give him hostages, and entirely abandon Wessex. They retired into Mercia, where they became confounded with the rest of their countrymen. A year before these events occurred, Halfden had elevated Egbert to the throne, in place of Recsige.
The invaders were in possession of three of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy; but this was insufficient to satisfy the hordes who were continually pouring in upon the devoted island with the design of settling; and an expedition was consequently planned, with the greatest secrecy, against Wessex.
The attack took place so suddenly that Alfred was ill prepared to meet it. Chippenham was taken, and the dispirited Britons no longer felt courage to prosecute the war. Many fled, whilst others—and of them not a few—leagued themselves with the Danes, swearing allegiance to them.
So general was the defection, that the unhappy monarch found himself deserted by all but a few domestics and faithful friends, who still adhered to his fallen fortunes. In this extremity, he showed himself greater, perhaps, than when on the throne, and acted with a prudence and wisdom which few princes would have found courage to imitate. He dismissed them all; and, with no other support than his courage and patriotism, set forth a wanderer, alone, and on foot, in the kingdom he had so lately reigned over.
So great was his poverty, that the uncrowned king was compelled to solicit shelter in the hut of a neat-herd in the island Athelney, in Somersetshire, a remote spot, surrounded by a dangerous marsh, wild and desolate as his own fortunes, and only to be approached by a single path, and that but little known. Here the fugitive had time to repair his shattered health, collect his thoughts, and meditate on plans for the future delivery of his oppressed and outraged country. Savage and uninviting as was his retreat, it afforded that which he had most need of—safety.
It is recorded that, whilst Alfred was an inmate of this abode, the neat-herd's wife, having occasion to quit the cottage for a time, set him the task of watching the cakes of rye-bread which were baking on the fire. The king, whose mind was distracted by far more important subjects, neglected his instructions, and when the woman returned, she found the cakes blackened and burnt. If tradition speaks truly, the virago chid him soundly, reproaching him that he was more ready to eat than to work.
In this miserable concealment the fugitive remained six months, when fortune, tired of persecuting him, appeared to relent, and once more smiled upon the efforts of the brave, but hitherto unlucky, Saxons.
Hubba, who had been entrusted by his brother Ivar with the command of his troops, had invaded Wales, laying the country in flames, ravaging, and destroying. He afterwards penetrated into Devonshire, in the kingdom of Wessex, with a similar intent. At his approach the Earl of Devon retreated with a body of determined men to Kenworth Castle, on the river Taw, in order to withstand them.
The Danish chief was not long before he decided on attacking the fortress, believing that the scanty garrison would surrender at his first summons; in which opinion, however, he was doomed to find himself mistaken, for the earl, seeing that it was impossible to defend the place with so few men, however devoted, told them frankly that one only course was left for them, to conquer and live free men, or die beneath the swords of their relentless enemy. His harangue had the desired effect: the Saxons, animated by his words, sallied forth, and fell upon the Danes so unexpectedly, that before they could recover from their panic their leader was slain; on seeing which, his followers fled in all directions.
The spot where Hubba fell was afterwards called Hubblestain, or Hubblelaw, from the monument raised over his remains by his countrymen.
On hearing the joyful intelligence of this victory, Alfred left his concealment, and called his friends once more to arms. They assembled in separate bodies in various parts of the kingdom, establishing such means of communication as might enable them to join their forces together at the shortest notice.
The great difficulty was to ascertain the position of the enemy, which dangerous task the patriot king undertook himself. The story runs that, disguised as a harper, he made his way into the Danish camp, and stayed there several days, secretly noting the disposition of their forces all the while. Having acquainted himself with all he wished to learn, Alfred returned to his countrymen, and named Selwood Forest for the general place of meeting. His directions were carried out so expeditiously, that in a comparatively brief space of time the Saxon monarch was enabled to attack his enemy at the head of a powerful army, consisting of the inhabitants of Somersetshire, Wiltshire, and Hampshire. The Danes, though unexpectedly assailed, defended themselves with their usual bravery, but at last were entirely routed.
They attributed their defeat to the loss of the raven standard, which had been taken when Hubba fell, and to which they superstitiously attached magical powers—that it indicated victory and defeat by clapping or depressing its wings.
Alfred, taking advantage of the consternation thus struck into the whole body of resident Danes, compelled them to capitulate; and granted them terms more advantageous than they could have expected, resigning the lands of East Anglia to such as were willing to become Christians, and requiring those who were not immediately to quit the island, with a promise never to return; hostages for the performance of which were to he given. Guthran, chief of East Anglia, who since the death of Hubba had commanded the Danish army, agreed to these conditions, and came to Alfred with thirty of his chief officers, having embarked all those who refused to be baptised.
Alfred in the Neat-herd's Hut. (See p. 32.)
Thus did the patriot king by a single battle recover his kingdom; and his subjects, whom fear had dispersed or constrained to submit to the enemy, flocked to him. All the historians agree that he invested the Danish general with the title of King of East Anglia: but it is not known whether he did so by virtue of some private treaty made before, or with a view to engage him in his interests. The kingdom of East Anglia was now wholly inhabited by Danes, and Guthran divided the lands among his countrymen, and exercised the regal authority as long as he lived.
It is to be observed that at the time of of the last battle there were in England two sorts of Danes—those who were already settled, and those who were endeavouring to procure themselves habitations. It was probably with the last that Alfred treated, as the former were anxious to be left in quiet possession of their settlements; and accordingly all those Danes settled in the three kingdoms of the Angles submitted quietly, and swore allegiance to him. But they were not all equally satisfied, as several had accepted the terms of tho last treaty only because they knew not whither to go, and became Christians to procure a subsistence, in expectation of a favourable opportunity to return to their old course of life. That this was the case appears from what followed. When it was least expected. the most considerable among them, headed by Hastings, earnestly solicited Guthrun to renew the war in Wessex, but not prevailing, they put to sea, and ravaged the coast of Flanders; and shortly after, another, and no less numerous troop, informed of the great booty the first expedition had met with in Kent, embarked to join them. These two bands, thus united, overran Brabant, Hainault, Flanders, Picardy, and Artois, perpetrating unheard-of cruelties; after which, having again divided into two bodies, one of them sailed back to England, in hopes of plundering the country, where they imagined they should come unexpected. Having landed in Kent, they marched towards Rochester, with design to surprise that city; but Alfred, who, contrary to their expectation, had his array in readiness, hastened to meet them upon the first notice of their arrival, and his approach was sufficient to make them fly to their ships with such precipitation that they left their plunder behind them. His vigilance having prevented their designs upon England, they returned to France, and rejoining their companions, continued their devastation in that kingdom.
Hitherto the English had only acted on the defensive. Exposed to the continual invasions of the Danes, and uncertain where the enemy would land, they were generally surprised before it was in their power to defend themselves; and the sea-coast being uninhabited, there was nothing to prevent the piratical marauders from landing unopposed. Alfred's first care, therefore, was to equip a considerable fleet, the advantage of which he had already experienced, with which he determined to cruise along the coasts, and attack all Danish ships laden with booty. Sixteen were surprised in the port of Harwich, in East Anglia, part of which were captured and the remainder sunk, and a considerable booty was also obtained. Guthrun, incensed at this act of hostility in one of his harbours, suffered the parties aggrieved to endeavour to retrieve their losses, and even furnished them with means; and it was not long before they found an opportunity of attacking and gaining some advantage over Alfred's ships. The Saxon fleet, however, in general maintained the superiority, and kept the Danes in awe.
The king, having thus secured the sea-coasts, fortified the kingdom with castles and walled towns, repairing those that had gone to ruin, and building others in so strong a manner that they could not easily be assaulted; and as London, considerable both for its size and situation, remained in the hands of the Danes, and gave them a passage into Wessex, he resolved to invest it, and the besieged were in a little time obliged to capitulate. He is said to have added both to its strength and beauty, and committed the government of it to Ethelred, who had married his daughter Elfleda, or rather gave it him, with the title of Earl of Mercia. Some historians say that he conferred on him the dignity of king; but there appears to be no authority for such an assertion. The creating Ethelred Earl of Mercia did not invest him with power, except in London, all the rest of the province being in possession of the Danes, over whom he exercised a titular authority. Having some repose from the turmoils of war, Alfred continued to occupy himself in fortifying the towns in his dominions—a precaution which served not only to repel any future attempts of their enemies, but to keep those who had already settled on the island within the limits assigned them.
This state of peace lasted for twelve years, during which time the patriot monarch had time to attend to the amelioration of the laws, and other improvements necessary for the well-being of his subjects.
The Danes, who, under the conduct of their chief, the celebrated Hastings, had ravaged France and the Low Countries, where they acquired immense booty, having been twice defeated by Eudes and Arnulph, the Kings of France and Germany, decided on returning to England, not with the intention of settling there, but led by the thirst of plunder. Dividing their forces into equal parts, they set sail for the island. The first expedition reached the coast of Kent, where they landed and committed dreadful depredations. The second, under the command of Hastings, entered the Thames, and landed at Middleton.
Alfred, who appears to have been in East Anglia at the time of this new invasion, no sooner received the intelligence than he drew together what troops he could; and, after receiving the oaths of the Anglian Danes, marched against the new comers, and defeated the enemy, who were laying siege to Exeter.
We have no very distinct accounts of the wars which ensued. The Danes, under the command of Hastings, returned to France, perhaps on account of the plague which, about this time, was committing great ravages in the island.
The terror which the name of this chief inspired had armed all the sea-coasts of France against him; on discovering which he resolved to change his course, and steer for the Mediterranean, where he contrived, by an act of sacrilege and deceit, to become master of the town of Luna, on the coast of Tuscany.
He pretended that he had merely visited the place in order to gratify his desire of becoming a Christian, and actually received baptism from the bishop. Some little time after he caused the simple prelate to be informed that he was dead, and had left a large sum of money, on condition of his being buried in the church of Luna. By this stratagem Hastings and a considerable number of his followers obtained entrance into the town, under pretence of conducting the funeral, and immediately began to massacre and pillage the inhabitants.
The adventurer ultimately settled in the city of Chartres, which Charles the Simple, King of France, assigned to him as the price of peace.
The laws, during the war, had been very much neglected, and were become almost unknown to the people. Alfred made a collection of the best he could find. He inserted some of the judicial laws of the Old Testament, and several of those formerly enacted by Ina, King of Wessex, and Offa, King of Mercia, in their respective kingdoms; and to those he added many of his own, adapted to the circumstances of his people. Throughout these laws may easily be observed an ardent zeal for justice, and a sincere desire of rooting out oppression and violence. They were indeed mild, if compared with those of later ages, seeing they punished most offences by mulcts and fines; but the strictness wherewith Alfred caused them to be observed counterbalanced their lenity. If with respect to private persons the rigour of the law was somewhat abated, it was not so with regard to unjust magistrates, for to such Alfred was ever inexorable; and history informs us that he executed four-and-forty judges within the space of one year, for corruption.
These precautions seemed to be sufficient to hinder the poor and the defenceless from being oppressed by the rich and great. But as Alfred was sensible the spirit of tyranny grew upon men in authority, he studied to prevent that injustice; and, to that end, ordered that, in all criminal actions, twelve men, chosen for that purpose, should determine concerning the fact, and the judge give sentence according to their verdict. This privilege, enjoyed by the English to this day, is doubtless the noblest and most valuable that subjects can have. An Englishman accused of any crime is to be tried only by his peers—that is, by persons of his own rank. These twelve men, chosen out of many others, with the approbation of the person accused, are called by the collective name of a jury; and these are properly the persons by whom the life or death of a prisoner is determined.
About this time, also, Alfred divided all England into shires—so called from the Saxon word scyre, to divide—and counties; the shires again into hundreds, which were subdivided into tithings, to which the inhabitants were obliged to belong, under pain of being treated as vagabonds.
He also invited over from foreign countries learned men, to whom he gave pensions, and dispersed them in the several dioceses, to instruct the people; and not satisfied with this, being desirous of having in his own kingdom a nursery of learning, he founded four schools or colleges at Oxford. In the first, the Abbot Neot and Grimald read divinity; in the second, Asserius, a Benedictine monk, taught grammar and rhetoric; in the third, John, a monk of St. David's, set up a chair for logtc, arithmetic, and music; and in the fourth, Johannes Scotus professed geometry and astronomy.
We find also among the learned men encouraged by Alfred, Plegmund, a Mercian, who became Archbishop of Canterbury, and many others. It is unnecessary to stay to examine whether the colleges founded by Alfred were the first foundations of the University of Oxford, or whether, before that, there were at a place called Greeklade similar schools, which were removed from thence to this city. It is enough to observe that, from very small foundations, the University of Oxford has advanced to its present state.
In all matters relating to the public, Alfred governed with the advice and assistance of the general council or assembly of the nation, called in Saxon Wittena-Gemot, to which rank and office gave a right to sit, and which was independent of the king. This assembly, styled at present the Parliament, a name taken from the French, was composed of the two Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the bishops, earls, viscounts or high-sheriffs of the counties, and the thanes of the first rank, or barons.
Whilst Alfred lay concealed in the Isle of Athelney, he made a vow to dedicate to God the third part of his time, as soon as he should be restored to a state of tranquillity. He performed his promise, and allotted eight hours every day to acts of devotion, eight hours to public affairs, and as many to sleep, study, and necessary refreshment. As the use of clocks and hour-glasses was not yet introduced into England, he measured the time by means of wax-candles, marked with circular lines of different colours, which served as so many hour-lines; and to prevent the wind from making them burn unsteady, it is said he invented the expedient of enclosing them in lanterns.
He also divided his revenues in two parts, one of which was wholly assigned for charitable uses, and subdivided into four portions; the first for alms to the poor; the second for the maintenance of the monasteries he had founded; the third for the subsistence of the professors and scholars at Oxford; the fourth for poor monks, foreigners as well as English. The other half was divided into three parts: one was expended on his family; another in paying his architects, and other curious workmen; and the rest was bestowed in pensions upon strangers invited to his court for the encouragement and instruction of his subjects. This monarch is justly distinguished with the surname of Great; and all historians unanimously represent him as one of the noblest that ever wore a crown. It is, however, said that in the commencement of his reign he was subject to great violence of temper; that he was haughty towards his subjects, and indulged the impetuosity of his passions so much, indeed, as to draw down the censure of his kinsman, St. Neot.
He died in 901, in the fifty-third year of his age, after a reign of twenty-nine years and six months, the greatest part of which was spent in war.