China: Its History, Arts, and Literature/Volume 1/Chapter 10

by Captain F. Brinkley

Chapter X

MONOCHROMATIC WARES (Continued)

RED

AFTER céladon and soft-paste white porcelain, the choicest of all monochromes are red. In European and American estimation, indeed, this order is reversed; red glazes are placed in the very highest rank, and it is not to be denied that there are excellent grounds for the verdict, since among the choice reds of China are to be found the grandest and most decorative colours ever produced in the pottery furnace. Many Chinese collectors also hold reds in superlative esteem, and grudge no price to acquire a fine specimen.

There is much uncertainty with regard to the time when red glazes were first produced. The Tao-lu, quoting from a memoir called the Chiang-ki, says:—"Porcelain vases of Ching-tê-chên were named Jo-yu, that is to say, 'Jade of Jo-chou.' They could hold their own against the true Ting vases in red porcelain." To this quotation the author of the Tao-lu adds the remark:—"It is thus seen that among Ting porcelains some were red. Brown and black Tings were also made, but the red Ting (Hung-ting) and the white were alone esteemed at the time (Sung dynasty)." The author, it will be observed, had no other evidence than a solitary quotation from an ancient memoir to support his dictum that red glazes were manufactured so far back. On the other hand, H'siang, himself a collector, apparently a keener connoisseur than the writer of the Tao-lu, and living, moreover, three centuries nearer the times of which he wrote, makes no mention of red Ting-yao, though he carefully enumerates the varieties of that beautiful ware which were most highly esteemed in the sixteeenth century. The student must be content, therefore, to leave this point unelucidated so far as the Ting-yao is concerned. Turning, however, to the Chün-yao of the Sung dynasty, it appears that whether pure red monochromes were produced or not, the use of red in the glaze was undoubtedly well understood. H'siang, speaking of this ware, says that "of the colours used in the decoration none excelled the vermilion red and the aubergine purple." The typical Chün-yao, familiar to modern collectors from genuine Sung specimens or later, though not inferior, imitations made at Ching-tê-chên, had a glaze of exceedingly delicate red, finely flecked with clair-de-lune, and cannot, therefore, be strictly classed among monochromes. In a variety of the same ware, made at Ching-tê-chên during the present dynasty, and supposed to have had its prototype in the Sung Chün-yao, there is a glaze called Hai-tung-hung, in consequence of its resemblance to the colour of the Pyrus Japonica blossom. None of the original Sung pieces, so far as is known, could properly have been described by such a name.

During the Yuan dynasty (1260–1367) red in the glaze seems to have been used only as an auxiliary. It is found associated, in the form of splashes or clouds, with the beautiful clair-de-lune glaze for which the epoch was famous.

Not until the Ming dynasty is the student unquestionably confronted with the grand, dazzling reds that subsequently became so priceless in the eyes of Chinese virtuosi. Among the porcelains of the Hsuan-tê era (1426–1435) the Tao-lu says that vases of rouge vif were classed as "precious," and that they were glossy, solid, and durable. The same book quotes this passage from another work: "In the Hsuan-tê period there were manufactured at the Imperial workshop cups of the red called Chi-hung, having handles shaped like fishes. To produce this red the potters mixed with the glaze the powder of a precious red stone which came from the Occident. On emerging from the kiln the fish blazed out from the body. The glaze was lustrous and thick." The expression Chi-hung signifies the clear red of the sky after rain. Such poetic epithets were not unnaturally employed by the Chinese, for the reds of their fine porcelains were in truth a poem. H'siang, in his Illustrated Catalogue, speaks of the same red as "the colour of liquid dawn" (Liu-h'ia-hung), a term finely descriptive of its clear, pure brilliancy. It will be observed that the description quoted by the Tao-lu is somewhat confusing, being applicable equally to white porcelain decorated with red fishes, or to red porcelain having fish-shaped handles. In point of fact, both kinds were manufactured with marked success by the Hsuan-tê experts, but as the former has already been included in the section of "porcelain having decoration under the glaze," further reference need not be made to it here. The two varieties of Hsuan-tê ware that belong to the present part of the subject are, first, that having a portion of the surface red and the remainder white; and second, that having its whole surface red. Examples of both varieties are depicted by H'siang in his Illustrated Catalogue. Of the first he shows a censer, three inches high and three and a half inches in diameter. The upper part is covered with deep red glaze of "rosy dawn tint," and the lower with snow-white glaze, the two colours showing a dazzling contrast. The surface is described as having millet-like marks in faint relief. Of the second variety he gives two examples, a wine-pot and a "palace saucer-shaped dish." The glaze of the former he calls "deep red" and that of the latter "bright red." In both cases the surface of the specimens is covered with engraved designs, a favourite addition to choice pieces. At the time when H'siang wrote, three hundred years ago, this tiny censer was valued at a thousand taels, and the owner of the wine-pot had paid some three thousand dollars (gold) for it. It is quite evident, therefore, that the Hsuan-tê experts were veritable masters in the production of red monochromes, and it is almost equally evident that specimens of their best work need not be looked for by foreign collectors of the present time. How then was this wonderful red obtained? The Tao-lu, referring to the Chi-hung porcelains of the Hsuan-tê era, says that there were two kinds, "bright red" (Hsien-hung), and "precious stone red" (Pao-shi-hung), but this distinction was not radical: it referred only to a difference of tone, the "precious stone red" being fuller and deeper than the "bright red." Both were obtained from silicate of copper, but the manufacturing processes remain to this day a mystery. Undoubtedly the production of a fine red was always regarded as a keramic tour de force in China. In the Tao-lu it is stated that few potters were capable of producing the Chi-hung vases, and that their manufacture was only attempted by artists who imitated the choice old Kuan-yao (céladon)—that is to say, by specialists. The eminent chemist M. Salvetat, referring to the Tao-lu's statement, says:—"This is confirmed by what we know of the difficulties experienced in maintaining oxide of copper (in the form of silicate of protoxide) at a high temperature in the presence of an abundance of atmospheric air." Indeed, it is probable that the best Chinese experts could never cope absolutely with these difficulties, and that infinitesimal variations in the condition of the kiln made themselves apparent in the tone of the glaze. When M. d'Entrecolles investigated the subject of porcelain making at Ching-tê-chên, he took pains to acquaint himself with the methods pursued by the manufacturers of Chi-hung monochromes. How far he succceded will be apparent from his account of the matter:—"Red oxide of copper and the powder of a certain reddish stone were mixed. A Chinese doctor tells me that the stone is a species of alum which is used for medicinal purposes. These are ground in a mortar, the urine of a youth and petrosilex being added to them at the same time. I have not been able to discover the quantity of these ingredients, those who have the secret being careful not to divulge it. The compound is applied to the paste before stoving; no other glazing matter is employed. I am assured that when this colour is to be given to porcelain no petun-tse is used in forming the pâte, but in its place there is mixed with the kaolin a yellow earth prepared in the same way as petun-tse. It is conceivable that such a clay is better suited to receive this species of glaze." Incomplete as is the information afforded by this account, it shows at least that the preparation of the red glaze—whether Hsien-hung (rouge vif) or Pao-shi-hung (ruby-red)—was a work demanding the greatest skill and experience. It would be exceedingly interesting to know how the Chinese potter originally achieved this admirable monochrome. Complete success he could never command, owing to the extreme sensitiveness of his materials to atmospheric influences during stoving, but it is pretty certain that with the exception of trifling modifications thus caused, he owed nothing to accident. Of course these early Ming specimens are now known only by written descriptions and by H'siang's illustrations, which latter, however useful, are evidently incapable of conveying any accurate impression of the colour. Indeed, none of the fine Chinese reds can by any possibility be reproduced on paper: they lose the brilliancy and lustre to which so much of their beauty is due.

The enormous values quoted by H'siang for the Chi-hung pieces illustrated in his catalogue prove that the successful production of such ware had virtually ceased before the era of which he wrote (second half of sixteenth century). The great renown of the Chêng-hwa (1465–1487) potters suggests that they too, ought to have bequeathed to posterity some fine examples of this highly prized monochrome. But in their time attention was especially directed to decoration with vitrifiable enamels, and they seemed to have used red chiefly as an auxiliary. At all events, no connoisseur who has written of their era ascribes to them any particular proficiency in the manufacture of red monochromes, though there is no reason to suppose that they were much, if at all, less skilled in this direction than their Hsuan-tê predecessors. During the Cheng-tê period (1506–1522), however, the production of fine reds was certainly carried on. The potters of this time succeeded admirably in the two tones of red, rouge vif and ruby, and left behind them a reputation for such work. But of the Chia-ching era (1522–1566) it is recorded:—"In this epoch the clay used for rouge vif porcelains was exhausted, and the mode of stoving them ceased to be the same as before. With difficulty could they make vases of the colour called Fan-hung," that is to say, red obtained from peroxide of iron. This is an important fact. What special kind of clay is referred to there is no means of determining, inasmuch as it is only known that in preparing the porcelain mass for red monochromes of Chi-hung type, the earth used for craquelé ware was employed in part, and there is nothing recorded as to a failure in the supply of this petrosilex. But the question of colouring material is plain. Peroxide of iron was incomparably easier to manipulate than silicate of copper, and the result obtained with it was correspondingly inferior. The manner of its preparation, as described by M. d'Entrecolles, and confirmed by the Tao-lu and Dr. Bushell, was to roast sulphate of iron to a red heat, add to each ounce of this five ounces of carbonate of lead, and mix the two with glue. M. Salvetat, speaking of this process, says:—"In order that this colour should vitrify, it must evidently borrow a sufficiency of silica from the porcelain itself. One sees that such a colour could possess brilliancy only when applied in a very thin layer." But in truth this Fan-hung red was altogether a different matter from the Chi-hung, being in fact an enamel laid over the glaze, fixed at the low temperature of the enamelling oven, and not possessing any brilliancy in the sense conveyed by the term as applied to a monochromatic glaze. An opaque coral colour, fine enough in its way, but not for an instant comparable to the Chi-hung red, was all that the best potter could obtain with the peroxide of iron. If, then, the keramist of the Ming dynasty ceased to be able to work with any other red colouring matter after the year 1522, it might be concluded that red monochromes of the clear, brilliant type were not produced from that time. Such a conclusion would be exaggerated. During the eras of Lung-ching (1567–1572) and Wan-li (1573–1619) Chi-hung glazes were still manufactured, though they are said to have fallen far short of their Hsuan-tê and Ching-tê redecessors. Thus, in the year 1571—the fifth of the Lung-ching era—it is on record that a Censor memorialised the Throne to permit the substitution of Fan-hung for Hsien-hung (rouge vif) in the wares for imperial use, so as to avoid distressing the manufacturers who were required to supply porcelains for the palace. Probably owing in part to this remonstrance, which must itself have had its origin in a marked deterioration of expert ability, the list of porcelains requisitioned for imperial use in that year contained the item:—"Rice-bowls and saucers of the vermilion red prepared from iron oxide instead of the bright copper red." Indeed, with the exception of special artists like the renowned Hao Shi-chu (1573–1619), whose cups are said to have been brilliant as vermilion, it may be concluded that the Chi-hung monochromes ceased to be produced after the year 1570.

Concerning these Ming reds, the illustrations from H'siang's Manuscript and his accompanying descriptions furnish the best and practically the only available guides. It has long been the habit with Western amateurs to ascribe to the Ming factories whatever choice pieces of the Chi-hung class happily come into their possession. The delusion belongs to the numerous myths which bric-à-brac dealers carefully foster and collectors readily credit. Outside China there are virtually no Ming Chi-hung monochrones in existence, and in China they are few and far between. The connoisseur must be content to know them vicariously, and to accept as true indications of their beauty the expressive names deservedly given them by their Chinese admirers, ruby red, the rosy blush of liquid dawn, and the crimson glow of the sky after rain and storm.

The red, monochromes familiar to American and European virtuosi are from the kilns of Kang-hsi (1662–1722), Yung-ching (1723–1725), Chien-lung (1736–1785) and even later epochs. In the great keramic renaissance that took place at the accession of Kang-hsi, the potters of Ching-tê-chên did not fail to turn their attention to ware so celebrated and highly valued as the Chi-hung monochromes. It was then that the much esteemed porcelain known in the West as "Sang de bœuf" may be said to have come into existence, for although it was produced also during the Ming dynasty, no specimens of that epoch left China, or that, at any rate, if any pieces did go Westward their number was quite insignificant. According to the Yao-lu, as quoted above, the Chi-hung monochromes were the work of specialists only, and it would appear that the revival of their manufacture at the commencement of the Kang-hsi era was due to a potter called Lang. The ware, at all events, is known in China as Lang-yao, and Chinese virtuosi explain this term as having reference to a family of potters celebrated for their skill in achieving red glazes. All efforts have failed, however, to discover anything about the exact time when the family flourished, or the date when its members ceased to devote themselves to such work. In the catalogue of a collection presented to the British Museum by Mr. A. W. Franks, F.R.S., the following note is appended to the description of "a bottle covered with a deep but brilliant red glaze:"—

This specimen is from Mr. A. B. Mitford's collection, and is thus described in the catalogue:—"A bottle: Lang-yao-tsu, porcelain from the Lang furnace. The Lang family were a family of famous potters who possessed the secret of this peculiar glaze and paste. They became extinct about the year 1610; and their pottery is highly esteemed and fetches great prices at Peking. The Chinese have never been able successfully to imitate this ware."

This statement appears to be based on some confusion between the approximate time when Chi-hung glazes ceased to be produced by the Ming potters and the epoch when the last members of the Lang family worked. At any rate, whatever may be the true history of the family, it is certain that the fine Lang-yao known to Western collectors dates, almost without exception, from the middle of the seventeenth to nearly the middle of the eighteenth century, the great majority of choice specimens being from the Kang-hsi kilns. In everything that makes for excellence—depth, brilliancy, and purity of colour, lustre and solidity of glaze, closeness and fineness of pâte, and general technical skill—the Kang-hsi Lang-yao yields nothing to the Chi-hung monochromes of the Ming dynasty. An important difference is that, whereas the Hsien-hung (rouge vif) and Pao-shi-hung (ruby red) wares of the Ming potters generally had incised decoration under the glaze, the Lang-yao is invariably without this feature. In truth the Lang-yao is not the real Tsing representative of the Ming Chi-hung. It will be shown presently that the latter is more accurately reproduced in another and still choicer porcelain. But the Lang-yao is the Sang de bœuf of the West, and in Chinese eyes good examples of it rank very high among fine porcelains.

Perhaps there is no ware about which inexperienced amateurs are more constantly and egregiously deceived. Yet the marks of excellence are so plain that, if once seen, their absence can scarcely fail to be detected. Speaking broadly, there are five varieties, but the collector, in accepting this classification, must remember that it is scarcely possible to find two specimens of Lang-yao exactly alike. The potter, as has been already remarked, could never control the conditions in the kiln sufficiently to count with absolute certainty on the tone and tint of the glaze after firing.

In the first and choicest variety the glaze is comparatively thin. Its brilliancy, softness, and sheen are indescribable. Sometimes it covers the surface completely and uniformly, except at the upper rim where a fringe of white is seen; sometimes it merges into a broad cloud of much lighter colour. Of course the latter want of absolute regularity within the limits of the same piece must be regarded as a technical defect, but it often increases rather than diminishes the charm of the ware. The finest colour can be compared to nothing more aptly than to a perfectly ripe cherry. It has all the transparency, éclat, and delicacy of the ruddy fruit. There is crackle, but it forms an almost imperceptible network, merely serving to give play of light and shade. Many tones of red are to be found in this class, but all alike are distinguished by clearness. Occasionally there is found a faint frosting of the surface or of parts of it; the glaze of such specimens bears a close resemblance to the skin of a freshly plucked persimmon.

In the second variety the glaze is appreciably thicker; the colour deeper and less transparent. From brilliant ruby the red passes through innumerable gradations of tone to ox-blood, strongly mottled by dark spots of varying size. Not infrequently a portion of the surface in this class of Lang-yao presents a distinctly green hue, due to excess of oxygen in the furnace. Such a feature, though in truth a technical fault, does not detract from the beauty of the ware, and since it can only occur in glazes coloured with silicate of copper—that is to say, in the glazes of genuine specimens—its presence may not be unwelcome to the amateur. There is crackle in this variety also, but owing to the thickness of the glaze and its greater opacity, the meshes are less perceptible.

In the third variety the glaze is distinctly more vitreous than in either of the preceding cases; and is further distinguished by the presence of minute flashes or flecks of lighter colour. This, though still a fine and valuable porcelain, must be ranked after the types of Lang-yao described above. The white flashes, though a tour de force, deprive the surface of solidity and softness, and the red has a shallower and less pure tone. The crackle shows with greater distinctness owing to the vitreous character of the glaze.

The fourth variety is a lighter red than any of the preceding: sometimes, indeed, it may be described as salmon-colour. The tone of a good specimen is perfectly uniform throughout, and the crackle becomes an important feature, being both larger, more regular and more strongly marked than in any of the other varieties. This type would scarcely be reckoned as Lang-yao by many Western collectors, but Chinese connoisseurs unhesitatingly place it in the family.

The fifth variety scarcely deserves, perhaps, to be separately classed, since it differs from the fourth chiefly in having spots of darker colour and sometimes mottling of greenish white. Generally, too, its under surface is not glazed, as is always the case with the first four varieties. This mark of inferior technique causes some Chinese connoisseurs to exclude it from the Lang-yao species, but it ought to be admitted for the sake of its other points of similarity.

The pâte of all true Lang-yao is of fine texture, absolutely free from grit, hard, white, and close. The amateur cannot pay too much attention to this point. He must not expect to find very thin biscuit: the rich red glazes required a solid body. But it is absolutely essential that every genuine specimen should have perfectly manipulated, pure porcelain pâte, the rim at the base neatly finished, and the lower surface, as well as the inside glazed. With regard to the auxiliary glaze used on under and inner surfaces, it is of three kinds:—First, white or buff coloured, usually but not necessarily crackled, secondly, green craquelé, and thirdly, light brown (the colour known in China as "sesamum-soy", or Chih-ma-chiang). Some connoisseurs take these glazes as evidence of grade, asserting that the green is associated with the best types of Lang-yao, the sesamum-soy with the second quality, and the white with the third. No such distinction really exists. On the contrary, the fourth, or salmon-coloured, variety of Lang-yao, as classed above, constantly has green craquelé glaze on its interior and under surface, while the variety placed first, and unquestionably most esteemed, usually has white or bluff glaze in these places.

True Lang-yao has no marks of factory or period. This does not appear to have been always the case with the Chi-hung pieces of the Ming dynasty. One of the specimens depicted in H'siang's Catalogue has the mark of the Hsuan-tê era engraved in the pâte.

Although no record is yet forthcoming as to the time when the Lang potters ceased to work, the indications furnished by their ware itself go to show that it was not manufactured after the close of the Kang-hsi, or perhaps of the Yung-ching era (1736). It is not possible, of course, to speak with certainty on this point, but Chinese connoisseurs also indorse the above view.

The Lang-yao is not by any means the only red monochrome that does credit to the potters of the reigning dynasty. It will be seen presently that other and even choicer varieties were produced. Here, however, it is convenient to speak of inferior reds which are constantly mistaken by amateurs for genuine Lang-yao. These are the Tsing representatives of the Ming Chi-hung. It has been shown above that the Chi-hung monochromes of the Ming dynasty included two equally beautiful and admirable glazes, rouge vif and ruby-red. But, curiously enough, from the commencement of the Kang-hsi era the term Chi-hung came to be applied to reds in general, exclusive of varieties distinguished by special names, as the Lang-yao. Many Chi-hung pieces of the Tsing dynasty are highly attractive and charming, and their reproduction seems to be as far beyond the strength of modern potters as is the imitation of the Lang-yao. But Chinese connoisseurs place this later Chi-hung in a distinctly lower rank, and they are undoubtedly right in doing so. For the Chi-hung glaze of the Tsing factories cannot vie either with the Lang-yao in richness or brilliancy, or with other monochromes, to be presently mentioned, in delicacy and purity. In fact the distinguishing feature of the Chi-hung, as compared with the Lang-yao, is a certain duskiness or muddiness of tone: the colour, though often very beautiful and esthetic, lacks the depth and gleam of Sang de bœuf. It should be premised, however, that in the Chi-hung also there are many grades, and that, like the Lang-yao, no two specimens are absolutely identical in tone. The typical Chi-hung of the Chien-lung era—for it does not appear to have been much manufactured by the Kang-hsi experts—is dark red of subdued shade, the tone quite uniform throughout, but the whole surface microscopically dappled, showing that the colour was applied by insufflation. The pâte is close and fine, the edges are well finished, and the inner and under surfaces are coated with white glaze. There is no crackle anywhere, and a year-mark in seal character is often found in blue under the glaze. Porcelain of this quality was evidently manufactured to take a high place. Preserving the same features as to absence of crackle, presence of white glaze on inner and under surfaces, careful technique and fine pâte, the Chien-lung Chi-hung passes through innumerable shades of colour, many pieces being of the liver-red class, while others approach the colour of light peach-bloom. The miscrosopic dappling disappears in the glazes of light tone. All these porcelains are satisfactory from a technical point of view, but they vary greatly in beauty according to colour. Their glaze never assumes the green tinge so often seen in Lang-yao specimens, from which alone it may be inferred that the colouring material differed from that employed by the Lang potters. Their manufacture continued as late as the Taou-kwang era (1821–1851), but in general it may be said that the younger the specimen the more clumsy its finish and the less pure its tone.

The commonest and least valuable Chi-hung—manufactured, with rare exceptions during the nineteenth century—may be placed in a separate class. It is distinguished by three points, the coarse mottling and poor tone of its colour; the thin, vitreous appearance of its glaze, and the presence of scratch-like crackle. In the worst examples a colour approaching brick-red is seen; the lower rim of the piece is clumsily finished, often indeed rough or jagged, and the pâte, instead of being white and close, is dark and coarse, an inferior stone-ware. When such features are present the amateur can be at once certain that he has to do with a worthless specimen. Unfortunately, however, guides so distinct are not always present. Some examples are tolerably rich and strong in colour, and not a few pieces dating from the Chien-lung era are in every respect fine examples of monochromes, their only fault being want of brilliancy and purity. Even later specimens may mislead the unwary, for though their biscuit is comparatively coarse, their technique is fair, and their interior and under surfaces are covered with white, or buff, glaze crackled or not crackled. On the whole, however, the garish, vitreous aspect, lack of depth, and weakness of tone of the great majority of Chi-hung porcelains ought to obviate the numerous mistakes made about them.

Rich and beautiful as is the Lang-yao, it is rivalled, and in Chinese estimation sometimes excelled, by a porcelain of which the colour is called Chiang-tou-hung, owing to its resemblance to the blossom of a species of bean. This colour is indescribable except by recourse to some such comparison. The Chiang-tou-hung is from the Kang-hsi factories. It may be regarded as the Tsing representative of the Hsien-hung of the Ming dynasty, though the latter appears to have been a darker red. As compared with the Lang-yao, the distinctive feature of the Chiang-tou red is delicacy. The tender bloom of the bean blossom well describes it. The tone varies greatly, but the closer the resemblance to the natural colour of the bean blossom, the greater the esteem accorded to a specimen. It does not appear that a clear distinction has hitherto been observed by Western collecters between Lang-yao, Chi-hung and Chiang-tou-hung, but by Chinese connoisseurs the three wares are never confounded.

At the head of all red glazes stands the Pin-kwo-ts'ing. This term signifies the "green of sprouting plants," or the "green of the water-shield," and its use implies that in the eyes of Chinese connoisseurs the presence of green constitutes a distinguishing feature of the glaze, though Western collectors generally class it with red monochromes. In America this beautiful porcelain has received the name of "Peach bloom," a happy appellation, for the most prized specimens may be best compared to the colour of a peach's rind before the contrast of velvet green and glowing but delicate red has been impaired by the yellow of ripeness. It does not appear, however, that in choosing the term "peach bloom" American connoisseurs gave any thought to the presence of green in the glaze. They were inspired solely by the resemblance between the surface red and the rich bloom of a peach, and in descriptive catalogues choice specimens are extolled entirely for the tone and uniformity of their monochromatic red as though the intrusion of any other colour would be a blemish. The Chinese expert, on the contrary, regards the presence of green as essential, and places first among all coloured glazes of Ching-tê-chên specimens of Pin-kwo-ts'ing on which the delicate glowing red is broken by broad fields of tender velvety green. No distinct varieties of the ware are recognised in China, but for purposes of descriptive convenience three principal types may be noted: first, a pure red monochrome; secondly, red mottled with white; and thirdly, red in combination with green. The first type is the celebrated "Peach bloom" of American collectors. There are various tones of this red, from the full, warm blush of a ripe apple to a very light flesh colour. All are beautiful and highly valued. The second type is the so-called "crushed strawberry." Its white dappling or clouding is often accompanied by speckles of transparent green which greatly enhance the charm. The third type, of which the presence of green is the distinguishing feature, is said to be due in great part to accidents of temperature in the kiln—some sudden oxidation of the reducing flame. But it is difficult to credit this, for in certain specimens the green occupies a place at least as important as the red. It is a green comparable only to the soft, restful colour seen in the rind of an apple or a peach, and it passes into red resembling just such a warm flush as Nature associates with this green. Possibly the variegation from red to green was originally due to chance, but that it afterwards became a special technical triumph there can be very little doubt. At all events, the result of the combination in its happiest form is that there is reproduced in a porcelain glaze the skin of a ripe peach, with all its exquisite shading of tones. The Pin-kwo-ts'ing is, in fact, the prince of Chinese coloured glazes. Fine specimens are exceedingly rare. They generally take the form of utensils connected with caligraphy, the most revered of all accomplishments in the Middle Kingdom—as little flower vases for placing on the desk; low bottles for washing the pen, ovoid in section with wide circular bases and narrow necks; round flattened bowls for holding water to mix with Indian ink, and small boxes for vermilion. As was the case in the rouge vif of the Ming dynasty, engraved decoration is often found under the Pin-kwo-ts'ing glaze, but it seldom covers the whole surface, being generally confined to medallions of coiled dragons, phœnixes with curved wings, or floral scrolls. The pâte is pure white and perfectly fine; the inner and under surfaces are covered with white glaze; there is no crackle, and the mark of the Kang-hsi era is generally written in blue under the white glaze.

A third special variety of choice red glaze is called Fan-hung by the Chinese. It has been shown that the ideograph Fan (rice flour), when used with reference to the Ting-yao, implies the presence of a greyish buff shade. Its employment in the case of a red glaze indicates that the red is permeated by a soft whitish tone, a rime, as though the glaze had been partially frozen. Fine specimens of Fan-hung are not inferior to either the Lang or the Pin-kwo-ts'ing porcelains. Sometimes they have patches or spots of transparent green similar to that seen in the finest type of Pin-kwo-ts'ing. A rare variety of Fan-hung is decorated with designs in blue sous couverte amid the red ground. In specimens of Fan-hung regarded by Chinese connoisseurs as the most delicate in tone and admirable in technique, the glaze at the lower part of the vase passes into an exceedingly soft clair-de-lune tint, as though the latter were the base of the general colour. The effect of this transition is very beautiful. Marks of date are less frequent upon Fan-hung than upon Pin-kwo-ts'ing pieces, and sometimes the bottoms of the former are left entirely without glaze. The pastes of all these grand reds alike are white, fine and carefully manipulated, and there is no crackle.

The Pao-shi-hung, or precious ruby glaze, for which, as described above, the Hsuan-té potters of the Ming dynasty were so famous, made its appearance again in the Kang-hsi era. It is scarcely to be distinguished from some specimens of Lang-yao in colour, but it has no crackle, and the glaze on the inner and under surfaces is clear white. Colouring matter said to be that employed in the preparation of this very choice porcelain, was analyzed at Sèvres, and found to consist simply of oxide of iron with a flux. It is scarcely credible that the clear, brilliant ruby red of the Pao-shi-hung porcelain can have been obtained with a material reputed so inferior.

Another variety of red, scarcely, however, deserving special classification, is called Hung-mien, or "cotton-floss red." Whether this term is derived from the name of a maker or was suggested by a peculiar mottling of the glaze, remains uncertain. The ware may easily be mistaken for Lang-yao, of which, indeed it seems to have been intended as a reproduction. It lacks, however, the grand phases of colour that distinguish true Sang-de-bœuf.

The above represent all the red monochromes de grand feu—that is to say, monochromes produced in the open furnace at the same temperature as that required to bake the porcelain mass on which they are superposed. Reds painted on the biscuit and vitrified at a comparatively low temperature, belong to another class—that of couleurs de mouffle.

The Tao-lu, speaking of the renowned expert Tang, who with Nien presided over the imperial factories at Ching-tê-chên from 1727, says that in a memoir written by a certain savant, Tang is credited with having revived the manufacture of brilliant red monochromes. The inference suggested by this is that such porcelains had ceased to be produced for some years when Tang assumed charge of the factories. But Chinese connoisseurs of the present day are unanimous in ascribing to Kang-hsi experts the finest specimens of the choice glazes enumerated above. The fact seems to be that they were produced with almost, though not altogether, equal success in the Yung-ching and Chien-lung potteries. Whatever difference existed has no great importance for collectors, except in respect of the Lang-yao, Chiang-tou-hung, and Pin-kwa-ts'ing glazes, all of which belong par excellence to the Kang-hsi period.

Among reds developed at the comparatively low temperature of the enameller's furnace the first place is given to the Tsao-hung or "Jujube Red" (red of the Zizyphus vulgaris). It need scarcely be observed that the difficulty of verbally distinguishing these various shades or tones of red is insuperable. The Chinese showed their appreciation of the fact by going to Nature for comparisons. The "Jujube Red" is a full, brilliant colour, perfectly opaque even when applied in the thinnest layers. In this latter quality lies one of its greatest merits, since, when employed for decorating over the glaze, it shows all the points of a perfect enamel—brilliancy, smoothness, depth, and uniformity—and at the same time clings to the surface in a layer of such imperceptible thinness as to seem a part of the glaze itself. Thus used it plays an important rôle in the manufacture of the finest Chinese porcelains, sometimes covering the whole surface of a monochrome, sometimes combined with coloured enamels, and sometimes surrounding reserved designs in white. Of the Tsao-hung monochromes—generally small pieces—little need be said. Beautiful as they are, they cannot be classed with such glazes as the Lang-yao, the Chiang-tou-hung, the Pin-kwa-ts'ing, and the Fan-hung, which are developed in the open furnace at a high temperature. But of the Tsao-hung, in combination with other decorative agents, it is scarcely possible to speak too highly. This is the beautiful enamel found on many of the "Imperial Porcelains" (Yu-chi, or Kuan-yao) of the best periods of the present dynasty, where it completely covers whatever portions of the surface are not occupied by floral designs in brilliant colours—green, yellow, blue, purple, black, and white. In the whole range of keramic chefs-d'œuvre there are not to be found any finer examples of decoration in vitrifiable enamels. But the choicest and most charming conception worked out by the aid of the Tsao-hung red is of the type shown in a Hsuan-té censer of H'siang's Illustrated Catalogue, concerning which the author says that "the upper two-thirds of the body and the handles are covered with a deep red glaze of rosy-dawn tint, the lower part enamelled white, pure as driven snow, the two colours mingling in a curved line dazzling the eyes." Similar pieces, though apparently few and far between, were manufactured by the Kang-hsi, Yung-ching, and Chien-lung experts. They are, indeed, improvements upon H'siang's specimen, for the white surface, instead of being separated from the red simply by a curved line, is covered with wave-pattern—engraved in the pâte with such delicacy that the superincumbent glaze is as smooth as velvet—the crests of the waves curling up into the brilliant red above. It is probable that in H'siang's censer the red was painted directly on the pâte, a method that would have added largely to its depth and brilliancy. But the Tsing reproductions of this fine type gain in artistic effect what they lose in grandeur of tone.

The second red among those applied to porcelain already stoved, is the Yen-chi-hung, or "Rouge Red." It differs from the "Jujube Red" in having a comparatively lustreless surface, usually granulated—though in many of the choicest specimens the granulations are only microscopically visible—whereas the "Jujube Red" is perfectly smooth. As a monchrome the "Rouge Red" is chiefly found on rice cups with covers, shallow bowls, and small plates. There are many tones, but the chief type is well described by comparison to the bright vermilion patches on the cheeks of a Chinese belle. In conjunction with enamelled decoration it plays a part not less important than the "Jujube Red," especially in the "Imperial Porcelains," where it is preferred by some connoisseurs on account of its peculiar softness and harmonious effect. It is this red that is found on some of the best "Medallion Bowls," so well known to Western collectors, where it covers the spaces between the medallions.

"Coral Red," called in China Shan-hu-hung, also belongs to the family of couleurs de mouffle. It is applied in a much thicker coat than either of the above reds; typical specimens look exactly as though they were made of highly polished coral. It does not rank with the choicest monochromes, but when combined with blue under the glaze—a very rare combination—the effect is rich and beautiful.

In addition to the above there are, of course, special tones of red to which special names are given. These made their first appearance on the palette of the Famille Rose decorators, at the close of the Kang-hsi era. Being in great part the outcome of foreign intercourse, they received the distinctive appellation of "Western" (Si-yang), as is seen in the ideographs for "crimson," and "pink," the "Rose du Barry" of Sèvres. These are used both for painting over the glaze and for monochromes. As monochromes they are found on the so-called "ruby-backed" egg-shell bowls and plates, so highly esteemed by American and European collector, though "Rouge Red" and "Jujube Red" are also employed for the same purpose. In decoration over the glaze they are seen on the beautiful porcelains of the Rose Family.

The term "ruby-backed"—to which reference has already been made—is employed by Western connoisseurs to denote porcelains which, though they do not constitute a separate family, being simply a variety of the Famille Rose, have seemed worthy of independent designation. They are certainly very choice and beautiful examples of keramic art. Their distinguishing feature, as the name denotes, is that the outer surface is completely covered with red enamel. The porcelain being as thin as paper, this coloured backing is distinctly seen through it, an effect of great softness and delicacy being thus produced. The enamel generally used is that called Yen-chi-hung (rouge red), but Tsao-hung (jujube red) is also found, as well as crimson and pink of the "European type." It will be seen, therefore, that the colour of the backing varies, and that the term "ruby red" is too limited to be truly descriptive. Plates, bowls, and small cups are practically the only examples of this ware. Evidently the potter, guided by the consideration that the effect of the enamel backing would be lost unless the whole inner surface of the piece were visible, and doubtless deterred by the difficulties of the task, generally refrained from making vases. Sometimes the "ruby" backing is the only decoration employed, but usually the other side of the specimen has designs, more or less elaborate, in coloured enamels of the Famille Rose type. The choicest pieces of all have designs incised in the pâte, with or without addition of coloured enamels. These porcelains belong to the "Imperial class." Their extreme thinness and delicacy, as well as their great cost, must have precluded their use except by persons of large means.

YELLOW.

There is unanimity among Oriental and Occidental connoisseurs alike in assigning the first place among monochromes to the grand reds of the Chiang-tou-hung, the Pin-kwo-ts’ing, the Lang-yao, and the Fan-hung glazes. But concerning the porcelain to be ranked second, differences of opinion will of course be found. Judging from the Illustrated Catalogue of H’siang, the honour lay between yellow and purple at the end of the sixteenth century. Of the two, yellow is the more uncommon.

Yellow glazes were manufactured in times as remote as the Tang dynasty (618-907), but they did not attain any reputation. The ware in which they were employed—Sheu-yao—was produced in the province of Kiang-nan. Subsequently, under the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368), a stone-ware called Hu-tien-yao, manufactured at a village of the same name in the neighbourhood of Ching-tê-chên, had impure yellow glaze run over archaic designs deeply incised in the pâte. Surviving pieces of this ware indicate that it belonged to a low grade, not suffering comparison with many other porcelains by contemporary potters, which are said to have shown the grace and elegance of fine Sung manufactures.

It was not till the Ming dynasty that the beautiful yellow monochromes so highly prized by all connoisseurs made their appearance; or, to speak more accurately, it was not till then that they elicited the admiration of connoisseurs. As usual it seems that the era with which the first successful manufacture of the ware is associated by the Chinese must in reality be regarded as the time when it reached a very high, if not the highest, stage of development. As to yellow monochromes this time was the Hung-chih era (1488-1505) of the Ming dynasty. H’siang, in his Illustrated Catalogue, shows several specimens of Hung-chih yellow, and appends to his description of one of them the statement that light yellow was the colour most valued in this reign. From his account it appears that the choicest shade was the yellow of a newly husked chestnut, and that bright yellow occupied the second place. As in the case of céladons and white Ting-yao, the shapes and decorative designs of old bronzes were chosen by the potters for choice pieces, the decoration being generally incised in the pâte but sometimes also in bas-relief. The point of note about this ware was that the glaze itself contained the colouring material, which did not consist of a mere layer of enamel as was the case with inferior porcelains of later date. The difference is essential. For whereas the beautiful canary-yellow ware of first quality is thin, almost transparent, of waxy softness and possessing a peculiar shell-like delicacy, the commoner class of yellow porcelain has thick pâte, a comparatively lustreless surface, and an opaque colour. It is with this latter variety that Western collectors are chiefly familiar, the former being not only scarce but also confined to insignificant specimens. It may be confidently asserted that all the highly valued yellows of the Hung-chih and later Ming epochs were of the transparent type. There do indeed survive pieces undoubtedly from the kilns of that dynasty which, though of fine, delicate porcelain, have their colour in the form of a thin wash applied after the biscuit had been baked. But these are to be placed in an entirely inferior grade. The specimens depicted in H'siang's Catalogue belonged beyond question to the former class, though of course their distinguishing characteristic of shell-like translucidity does not appear in the illustrations. The manufacture of this fine yellow continued throughout the industrially active eras of the Ming dynasty. Even as late as the Wan-li period (1578-1619) excellent specimens were produced, having the year-mark written in deep, full-bodied blue under the glaze. But the manufacture of yellow monochromes seems to have been very limited. In the imperial porcelain requisitions for the years 1529 (Chia-ching era) and 1573 (Wan-li era), among a multitude of other wares such monochromes are mentioned only twice: in the former year "boxes with dragons and phœnixes engraved under a yellow glaze," and in the latter "teacups yellow inside and out, with clouds, dragons, and fairy flowers faintly engraved under the paste." Yellow, when specified elsewhere, appears as an enamel, being used to paint dragons, phœnixes, and floral scrolls surrounded by blue or brown grounds, or itself forming a ground surrounding designs in blue, or a field for coloured enamels.

It need scarcely be said that genuine examples of yellow monochromes dating from the Ming dynasty are almost unprocurable. But from the Kang-hsi era (1662) down to the closing years of the eighteenth century this delicate glaze was manufactured successfully and in larger quantities. There were various tones, from pale lemon to deep straw-colour, though only two were specially distinguished, light yellow (Hiao-hwang) and golden yellow (Chin-hwang). Small pieces, as bowls, cups, censers, miniature vases, and so forth, were chiefly produced. Occasionally crackle was added, but in the great majority of cases the potter confined his decoration to incised designs of a comparatively simple character, the perpetual dragon figuring prominently. It is unfortunate that this beautiful glaze was not employed in the manufacture of more important pieces, for its delicacy and softness can scarcely be over-estimated. The experts of the Tsing dynasty, however, preferred to produce the thicker variety, in which the colour, applied to the surface of the biscuit after stoving, presents an opaque, dull appearance. Not a few fine specimens of this class survive. They are usually modelled after the fashion of bronzes, having fluted or diapered surfaces and handles shaped into grotesque monsters. Yellow is the sovereign colour of the Tsing dynasty, and it may be for that reason that yellow monochromes are comparatively uncommon. Porcelains having designs in green in a yellow field of the opaque type are more numerous. Western connoisseurs often distinguish them by the title of "Imperial Ware," though they have no special claim to be thus honoured.

The yellow craquelé mentioned above must be distinguished from the so-called "mustard yellow" of Occidental collectors. The latter is of the inferior type; its colour being an opaque enamel applied to the stoved biscuit. The surface is covered with a network of fine crackle, and there is an absence usually of lustre and always of transparency. Many technically faulty examples of "mustard yellow," dating from the Taou-Kwang (1821-1851), and especially the Hien-fung, era (1851-1862), have found their way into European and American collections, and are valued far above their true merits.

In the Kang-hsi era, under the direction of the celebrated potter Tang, a peculiar yellow glaze was manufactured. It ranked among the Imperial Wares (Kuan-yao) of the time and has always been highly esteemed. The pâte is not porcelain proper, but very fine stone-ware, always thick and solid, and the glaze is distinguished as "eel-yellow," Shan-yu-hwang, from its supposed resemblance to the colour of an eel's belly. It is an opaque glaze, having comparatively little lustre and owing its colour to a dust of minute yellow speckles, so close and fine as to be imperceptible without very careful examination. Beautiful as this monochrome undoubtedly is, it does not immediately command appreciation, being less remarkable for brilliancy of surface or richness of colour than for combined softness, solidity, and peculiarity. It is never associated with other colours or enamels. It was manufactured successfully by the Yung-ching and Chien-lung experts, but potters of a later era seem to have been quite unable to produce it. Good specimens generally have the mark of their period incised in seal character on the base.

A colour which, though not strictly monochromatic, may be conveniently included in this section, is the Hwang-tien-pan, or "spotted yellow." This is also of the Kuan-yao, or imperial class: indeed the author of the Tao-lu ranks it first among the four choicest varieties of the Kang-hsi era. Like the "eel-yellow," it has solid pâte of fine stone-ware, over which is run a dark olive green glaze, covered, more or less thickly, with yellow speckles. Sometimes the green predominates, sometimes the yellow, and sometimes the latter appears in the form of flecks rather than spots. In this last case a close resemblance to patinated bronze is discernible and was doubtless intended, since the glaze is often associated with designs, incised or in relief, copied from old bronzes and occasionally picked out with gold. In the choicest examples the yellow spots appear like a dappling of gold floating in the glaze. Specimens of this latter nature are immensely prized by the Chinese. There is no record to show when either the "eel-yellow" or the "spotted-yellow" was invented. They first appear among the "Imperial Wares" of the Kang-hsi era, and, so far as is known, the composition of these curious and difficult colours must be attributed to the genius of Tang. It seems reasonable to conclude that had glazes so remarkable been manufactured during the Ming dynasty, some account, written or traditional, would have been preserved of them. After the Chien-lung era they ceased to be produced with success. They have always been highly esteemed in Japan, where they are known as Soba-yaki (buckwheat ware), probably in allusion to the colour of cakes made of that grain, or, as some assert, to the green and yellow aspect of a ripening crop of the cereal.

In a catalogue of Ching-tê-chên keramic productions quoted by the Tao-lu, mention is made of "yellow vases of the European type." The reference is to the lemon yellow of the Famille Rose porcelains, the colours of which were first employed towards the end of the reign of Kang-hsi, either as monochromes or for painting over the glaze.

PURPLE.

Purple was a favourite colour with Chinese potters from the tenth century downwards. In two of the celebrated wares of the Sung dynasty—the Ting-yao and the Chün-yao—purplish glazes occurred. The purple Ting-yao (Tsu-Ting-yao) is compared sometimes to ripe grapes, sometimes to the skin of the aubergine (kia-pi), while the purple Chün-yao is likened to the aubergine flower (kia-hwa), which is dusky indigo rather than purple. Indeed many of the so-called "purple monochromes" of China might be more properly described as dark blue or indigo. The illustrations in H’siang's Catalogue show that a true purple did appear in the Ting-yao, as may also be inferred from the fact that the glaze is compared to ripe grapes. But the same is not true of the Chün-yao. In truth the ideograph tsu, used by the Chinese to designate purple, has no distinct signification: it is employed of a colour varying from purple to nankeen brown. With some defining addition, as "aubergine purple," or "ripe-grape purple," a clear idea is conveyed, but when a Chinese writer merely says tsu or hiao-tsu (tsu of light tint), it is impossible to be quite sure of his meaning. The principal Chün-yao glaze was red: it is sometimes spoken of as Mei-kwei-tsu, or precious-garnet colour. In certain varieties, however, especially those manufactured by the Kang-hsi and Yung-ching potters, their appears a curious dusky indigo more or less permeated with red; an indescribable tint. The Chün-yao glaze was exposed to the full temperature of the porcelain kiln, but the purple of seventeenth and eighteenth century wares is an enamel applied to the biscuit after baking. It was employed by the Chinese keramists in most bizarre fashions; as for example, to cover the manes and tales, and even the bodies of Dogs of Fo, or the faces and breasts of mythological personages. In these cases it is usually associated with green, or turquoise blue. As a pure monochrome it is rare, especially in large pieces, and many connoisseurs hesitate to give it high rank among single-coloured porcelains owing to its glassiness and want of solidity. Nevertheless, fine examples are undoubtedly of great beauty and value. Their essential features are purity of colour, lustre and uniformity of surface, and close-grained, white pâte. Many of them have designs incised in the biscuit or in low relief. Occasionally, however, a glaze irreproachable as to texture and colour is run over dark, coarsish pâte; such specimens belong usually to the Chia-tsing, Taou-kwang, or Hien-fung kilns—i.e. to the period included between 1796 and 1862.

BLUE.

Just as the Chinese potter sought to imitate jade in his choicest green porcelain, so he took glass as a model for some of his finest purple and blue monochromes. He succeeded so perfectly that a specimen is occasionally seen having glaze scarcely distinguishable from glass in texture and lustre. Examples of this kind are highly and deservedly prized in China. They often perplex the tyro who discerns nothing to distinguish them from glass except their want of complete translucidity. Technical skill in the manufacture of glazes could scarcely be carried beyond the point reached by the makers of these beautiful porcelains.

Blue monochromes were largely manufactured in the second half of the Ming dynasty as well as in the Imperial workshops of the Kang-hsi and succeeding eras. Some varieties of céladon may be placed in this category, since the tint of their glaze approximates to blue rather than to green. But the subject of céladon has already been sufficiently discussed. Allusion is made here to blues essentially recognised as such by Western connoisseurs. There are seven principal varieties, namely, soufflé blue, azure blue, clair-de-lune or lilac, lapis blue, Mazarin blue, watered blue and "blue of the sky after rain."

The practice of applying colour to porcelain by insufflation undoubtedly dates from a very early period. In certain specimens of Sung dynasty Chün-yao, it is plain that this process was resorted to. The method has already been described in connection with bleu sous couverte, and it remains only to note here that some of the finest blue monochromes were thus manufactured. The blue of choice pieces is remarkable for depth and brilliancy, and the mottling of the surface, sometimes so minute as to be scarcely perceptible, sometimes bold and strong, lends charming softness to the glaze. In monochromes of this class large imposing specimens are quite exceptional, the soufflé blue in pieces of size generally serving as a field for coloured enamels, for decoration in gold, or for medallions enclosing designs in blue on a white ground. Bowls, cups, plates, and such objects constitute the bulk of obtainable monochromatic examples. As a full-bodied, deep, pure blue, their colour is unsurpassed. There is little if anything to choose between the three eras, Kang-hsi, Yung-ching, and Chien-lung in the case of these porcelains, nor does the amateur run much risk of being deceived. The general tests of good ware are easily applied—close-grained pâte, lustrous uniform glaze, and careful technique.

Azure blue, or Tien-lan, is a colour of much lighter and more delicate tone than that last spoken of. No record exists as to the date of its earliest manufacture. The oldest examples in collections outside China belong to the Kang-hsi era, and it may be assumed with confidence that finer specimens were never produced. They vary in depth of colour. The palest and most delicate have large crackle, and a peculiar transparency of glaze which enables them to be easily distinguished. They are beautiful porcelains, much and deservedly esteemed in China, but they were never produced in large quantity, and the ability to produce them at all with success seems to have been lost after the close of the eighteenth century. Sometimes a glaze of this type is associated with clouds or splashes of blood red.

Lilac monochromes are generally supposed to have had their origin in the typical ware of the Yuan dynasty, described in a preceding chapter under the name of Yuan-tsu. The clair-de-lune glaze, however, which is the choicest variety of the family, occurs first on the inner surfaces of specimens of Sung Chün-yao, and sometimes, indeed, covers the whole piece. It will therefore be more correct to ascribe the conception of this beautiful monochrome to the Sung potters. In the Yuan-tsu it occurs either as a monochrome or associated with blood-red spots or clouds. It is a glaze of wonderful richness and softness, and some connoisseurs place it next in rank to the fine reds of Pin-kwo-ts’ing, Lang-yao, and Chiang-tou-hung porcelains. During the Ming dynasty excellent examples of it were produced at the Yang-chiang factory in Kwang-tung province. Their special beauty lay not alone in the delicate, velvety aspect of the glaze, but also in flashes of deeper colour breaking its uniformity. The impression conveyed is that a film of lighter tint overlies a ground of deep, steely blue. The pâte of this Kwang-tung ware, or Kwang-yao, is not porcelain, but a tolerably fine, reddish stone-ware, like its predecessors of the Sung and Yuan dynasties. The glaze is very thick, and its thickest portions, especially at the bottom of cups and bowls, show the profound, semi-transparent blue characteristic of the type. Vases or other large specimens of clair-de-lune Kwang-yao are very rare, but cups and bowls may be found without much difficulty. There is no doubt that, like the Yuan-tsu and Sung Chün-yao, the Kwang-yao was successfully copied by the Ching-tê-chên potters of the present dynasty; but inasmuch as its manufacture at Yang-chiang continued until the end of the eighteenth century, the great majority of surviving examples may be ascribed to the latter kiln. There are, as a rule, no marks, and the connoisseur must be guided by lustre of glaze, richness and delicacy of colour, fineness of pâte, and generally careful technique.

Belonging to the same family though easily distinguishable from the thick oily glazes of the Kwang-yao, are lilac monochromes manufactured at Ching-tê-chên during the Kang-hsi, Yung-ching, and Chien-lung eras, and known as Yueh-pai, or blanc-de-lune. These vary slightly in tint. The surface of the best examples shows exceedingly fine dappling—so microscopic as to be scarcely perceptible—apparently produced by the process of insufflation. The biscuit is thick and solid, but white and close-grained. Later specimens are marked by impurity of colour and more or less faulty technique; their lilac assumes a dusky shade, their pâte is comparatively coarse, and their glaze is often disfigured by pitting or blisters. The potters of the Taou-kwang and later eras were fond of using this impure lilac glaze as a field for designs—generally lions playing with balls—in maroon, brown, and black.

Lapis blue monochromes are among the rarest and choicest of the blue family. Their intense, brilliant colour justifies the esteem in which they were held. They were undoubtedly manufactured with success by the later Ming keramists, but the best examples familiar to Western collectors are from the Kang-hsi, Yung-ching, and Chien-lung kilns. Not infrequently they have decorative designs—dragons, phœnixes, and so forth—finely engraved under the paste, and sometimes the monochrome is interrupted by yellowish white spots or veins, as though the potter had set himself expressly to imitate lapis lazuli. The best specimens have close-grained, white porcelain pâte, but even in pieces dating as far back as the close of the eighteenth century comparatively coarse brown biscuit is occasionally found.

Mazarin blue is the commonest monochrome of this family. With regard to period the same remarks apply to it as to Lapis blue. The points of excellence are velvet-like lustre of surface, depth and purity of colour, and microscopic dappling, showing that the colouring material has been applied by insuffation. Many porcelains of this class have colour so intense and full-bodied as to verge upon purple. Incised decoration is frequently added, and in pieces of comparatively modern manufacture the surface is often covered with designs in relief. Large quantities of porcelain having Mazarin blue glaze were manufactured in the Taou-Kwang era. They are generally disfigured by impurity of tone and clumsy technique, defects which become more marked the later the period of manufacture. Bowls having céladon glaze inside and deep dusky blue outside belong to this inferior category. A frequent though not essential characteristic of modern and faulty specimens is that the bottom of the piece, instead of being covered with white glaze, is unevenly smeared with a thin coat of dark brown pigment-like substance.

Watered blue, called by the Chinese Chiao-ching, is found on the outer surface of finely manipulated specimens of porcelain, the interior of which is covered with pure white glaze, sometimes having beautifully executed designs incised and in relief. The method of manufacturing this monochrome was to add native silicate of cobalt to the ordinary white glaze. According to the proportion of cobalt various hues of colour resulted. Choice examples generally date from one of the three great eras—Kang-hsi, Yung-ching, and Chien-lung—of the present dynasty, for though the Chiao-ching was certainly produced in the Ming factories also, pieces of that period do not seem to have survived in appreciable numbers.

The colour known in China as "blue of the sky after rain" (u-kwo-tien-ts’ing) has already been spoken of in connection with céladon. There can be little doubt that the colour originally conceived under this name showed a strong tinge of green. But the potter of the three great eras of the present dynasty produced a porcelain bearing no resemblance to céladon which has come to be known as "blue of the sky after rain." It is a hard-paste porcelain, fine-grained, excellent in every technical detail, and covered with a monochromatic glaze of the utmost lustre and delicacy. The colour is light cerulean. This ware commands the admiration of Chinese virtuosi. The year-mark is generally found on the bottom of fine pieces in seal character, blue sous couverte.

All the above varieties of blue monochromes were manufactured at the full heat of the porcelain kiln, the colour being developed and the biscuit fired at the same temperature. There remains to be noticed another blue of very great beauty, exceptionally appreciated by Western connoisseurs, which, being applied to the surface of ware already baked, was subjected only to the temperature of the enameller's furnace. This is the colour called "Turquoise Blue" by Europeans, but in China known as Tsui-se, or the blue of the king-fisher's feathers. It was obtained from an oxide prepared by mixing old copper and saltpetre with water. The manufacture dates from the Ming dynasty. In one of the imperial requisitions for porcelains to be used at the palace during the Lung-ching era (1567-1572), bowls and plates covered with Tsui-se glaze are included. But the colour is not mentioned in any record of choice wares manufactured earlier than the sixteenth century. It is certainly one of the most delicate yet brilliant of Chinese monochromes. Genuinely fine specimens have become exceedingly scarce, though their production was continued with success until the end of the Chia-tsing era (1796-1821). They are close-grained, hard porcelain, with soft lustrous glaze of perfectly uniform turquoise blue, and having decorative designs—dragons and phœnixes—engraved in the pâte. Crackle is absent and the technique is unimpeachable. It is important to notice these two points—the nature of the pâte and the absence of crackle—if the amateur desires to distinguish between the very choicest specimens and those of second-rate quality. The variety having fine porcelain pâte covered with uniform "king-fisher" glaze of delicate tint with designs carefully engraved in the biscuit, ranks among Imperial Wares (Kuan-yao) in Chinese eyes. An inferior though scarcely less beautiful description has a net-work of fine crackle and comparatively soft biscuit with a timbre resembling that of faience rather than of porcelain proper. In this kind engraved designs are exceptional, but decoration in high relief occurs not infrequently. Sometimes the uniformity of the surface is broken by metallic spots, large or small, producing a highly pleasing effect. Turquoise glazes are also found upon reddish brown stone-ware, thin but comparatively coarse. Such specimens are either to be classed as third-rate examples of Chien-lung and Chia-tsing manufactures, or to be attributed to the workshops of Taou-Kwang (1821-1851) and subsequent eras. Many of them possess great decorative attractions.

It should be explained that in insisting upon the absence of crackle the intention is merely to note a feature of the one and only variety of "king-fisher" glaze to which Chinese connoisseurs give a place among Imperial Wares. Many Western collectors will doubtless hold that the close, circular "fish-roe" crackle commonly seen on good pieces of turquoise blue is an additional charm. It is at all events certain that among the latter are to be found numerous specimens of great merit. Many of them are modelled after ancient bronzes, not only the shapes of the latter but also their designs, incised and in relief, being accurately reproduced. The Chinese potters were also fond of using turquoise blue as a body colour in statuettes of sacred personages and mythical animals. In such cases they often combine it with purple and occasionally with yellow and white glazes, sacrificing every principle of congruity to their love of rich, striking tints. It is curious that this prostitution of beautiful materials and skilled technique to barbaric conceptions should have found so much favour with Western collectors. Jacquemart mentions that ware of this description was much prized in France at the end of the last century. He instances small pieces which were sold at auction for prices ranging from 340 to 1,800 francs, and adds that, in his own time (1875), a vase decorated with a group of carp in violet swimming among aquatic plants in turquoise blue fetched as much as 3,000 francs. Purchasers of such pieces cannot be said to have attached much value to artistic congruity.

As arule only the choicest variety of the "king-fisher" monochrome is marked; the mark generally being a year period engraved in seal character.

GREEN.

At the head of green monochromes stands céladon, at once the oldest and most prized ware in the Orient. To this variety, however, it is unnecessary to refer again in detail. Distinct from it is the Ta-lü, or deep green, which, according to the records, was manufactured in considerable quantities during the twelfth century. Specimens of this early period Ta-lü do not appear to have been preserved in China, but in Japan examples are found that may be regarded as fairly typical. They are chiefly in the form of tiles used for roofing the palace at Kyôtô at the time of its reconstruction after a conflagration in the twelfth century. The tiles are of pottery, having red pâte over which is run green glaze of considerable lustre and brilliancy. By the Japanese such ware was ascribed to Cochin China and known as Kôchi-yaki, but that they misconceived its origin there can be no doubt. It is plain, of course, that the Chinese keramist would not have put his best work into tiles. The Kyôtô specimens serve only to show that the potters of the Sung dynasty understood the production of couleurs de demi-grand feu, for the green glaze was evidently applied to the biscuit after baking and developed at a comparatively low temperature. Even the most carefully manufactured pieces of this ware cannot have possessed value in the eyes of Chinese connoisseurs. It is not classed among the choice productions of the Ming era, and its representative of the present dynasty is a porcelain of little merit, having a glaze that often lacks uniformity and purity. The Ta-lü, whether ancient or modern, had no crackle, properly so-called, though the glaze occasionally showed accidental fissures. Dismissing this variety, therefore, as unworthy of further attention, it remains to notice three principal kinds of choice green; namely, apple green (Pin-kwo-ts'ing), peacock green (Kang-tsiao-ts'ing), and cucumber-rind green (Kwa-pi-li).

It has already been explained that the term Pin-kwo-ts'ing (green of the water-shield) is applied by the Chinese to a ware of which the dominant colour is generally red. But the same term has come to be used of a green monochrome arbitrarily called "apple green" by foreign collectors. This ware owes its beauty to purity and delicacy rather than to richness. It invariably has large crackle, of the "starred-ice" type, and without such crackle would lose much of its charm. The inside of good specimens has thick, creamy white glaze, which also is craquelé. "Apple green" has the merit of being a couleur de grand feu; that is to say, the colour is incorporated with the glaze and developed at the full temperature of the porcelain kiln. No mention is made of this ware among the noted productions of the Ming potters. The fine specimens by which it is now known date from one of the three great periods of the present dynasty, Kang-hsi, Young-ching and Chien-lung, but many passable pieces were manufactured during the first half of the nineteenth century.

The tint of the peacock green is well described by its name: it is the full, dark, glowing colour seen on the neck and back feathers of the peacock. This variety differs essentially from apple green in being a colour developed at the low temperature of the decorator's furnace. It ranks, in fact, with turquoise blue—or king-fisher blue—for a dark kind of which it is sometimes mistaken. Not infrequently the two colours occur in combination, the turquoise blue appearing as clouds or broad streaks among the peacock green. There is crackle of varying fineness, and the pâte of the choicest specimens is close-grained, white porcelain. From the second half of the Chien-lung era until the middle of the nineteenth century (Taou-kwang era) an inferior, dark, pottery pâte was often used, though the glaze and colour were of a high order of merit. That peacock green was among the monochromes produced during the Ming dynasty is proved by the lists of wares requisitioned for imperial use at that epoch, rice-bowls and saucers of peacock-green colour being among the articles mentioned in the requisitions of the Lang-ching era (1567–1572).

The cucumber-rind green is perhaps best known to Western collectors and most highly esteemed by them. It is a dark, opaque colour, rich, full-bodied, and lustrous. The glaze is finely crackled. What has been said with regard to the pâte of turquoise blue and peacock green applies to this variety also; namely, that the choicest specimens have fine porcelain biscuit, pottery of varying coarseness being a mark of comparatively modern and inferior technique. In the Tao-lu there is mention of three kinds of "imperial ware," produced during the Kang-hsi era under the direction of the celebrated Chang. Two of these—eel-skin yellow and olive-green spotted with yellow—have already been described. The third is called "snake-skin green" (Shê-pi-lü), a term said to have been applied at that time to the glaze subsequently known as "cucumber-rind." Cucumber-rind green of really fine quality is one of the rarest colours to be found in the Chinese bric-à-brac market.

Another variety of green is the Chiao-lü, or light green, a grass tint, partially transparent, having metallic lustre, and generally showing iridesence. The glaze on this ware is thin and the pâte fine porcelain. Incised decoration is usually added, the colour not lending itself happily to the purposes of a perfectly plain monochrome. The Chiao-lü does not rank with choice wares, except when it occurs in combination with other colours or with enamel decoration.

The rarest of all the green monochromes is the "crab-shell green," or Hiai-chia-ts'ing. It is difficult to add anything to the description embodied in the name of this curious ware. The colour is a somewhat impure mottled green, showing with remarkable accuracy the partial translucidity of a crab’s shell. Hard, fine-grained pare and all the technical qualities indicate most careful manipulation. So few are the genuine specimens still surviving, that it seems almost misleading to place them in a separate category. Nothing is on record as to the history of the ware, but the rare example seen in China seem to belong to the Kang-hsi or Yung-ching era.

The last and appreciable kind of green resembles the Chiao-lü in tint, but is fuller and more opaque. The glaze of this variety is thick and the majority of the specimens date from the latter half of the Chien-lung era, and from the Chia-tsing, Taou-kwang, or even later periods. The ware deserves no special mention, being simply porcelain covered with thick, lustreless and uninteresting grass-green glaze, often tricked out with ill-fired gilding.

BLACK.

From early times black glazes occupied the best attention of the Chinese potter. They are found on both the Ting-yao and the Chien-yao of the Sung dynasty. The Mo-Ting-yao, or black Ting, is little known to Western connoisseurs. The one specimen illustrated in H'siang's Catalogue goes to show that the ware was rather brown than black, not showing any of the depth or brilliancy usually supposed to be characteristic of a fine black monochrome. In this respect the Chien-yao—of which, with its inferior variety, the U-ni-yao, mention has been made already—possessed greater attractions. Its deep, lustrous black, showing tints of raven's-wing green and marked iridescence, its silvery lines and delicate dappling, render it one of the most interesting productions of the Chinese keramist. The manufacture of the original Chien-yao came to an end in the Yuan dynasty, and when the factory renewed its activity under the Ming emperors, its outcome assumed a wholly different character. No attempt to reproduce either this ware or the black Ting seems to have been made, nor is there any record that black glazes were in vogue during the Ming dynasty. On the whole, therefore, it seems justifiable to conclude that from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century monochromes of this class did not receive marked attention. Their manufacture was resumed, however, in the Kang-hsi era when two principal varieties were produced. The first was "metallic black," called U-chin; the second "mirror black," called U-ching. The former of these names is not accurately descriptive. For in the "metallic black" two tolerably distinct kinds are found: a thin glaze having the sheen of metal, its surface often showing iridescent hues of dark green or blue, and a more solid glaze of noir-mat type. The "mirror black" is happily named, being a deep, soft colour, glossy, polished, and reflecting images like a mirror. M. d'Entrecolles, speaking of mirror black, says:—"This black is produced by dipping the porcelain in a liquid mixture of prepared azure. It is not essential that the best blue should be employed, but it should be a little thick, and it must be mixed with glazing material obtained from powdered petrosilex, to which is added "dead-leaf" glaze with some lime and fern ashes. No other glaze is applied. In stoving this species of ware, it must be placed in the middle of the kiln and not where the temperature is highest." This process would evidently have given a pure black monochrome, and in point of fact many beautiful specimens of perfectly uniform, glossy black porcelain were thus produced. during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But M. d'Entrecolles' description tells nothing of a feature that distinguishes the choicest variety of mirror black, namely, the addition of golden speckles. Strictly speaking, such ware should not be classed with monochromes, but the dust of gold speckles floating in the glaze is so fine that it conveys an impression of sheen and softness rather than of colour. Examples of this charming ware are very rare. Like the blue-and-white Kai-pien-yao and several of the most prized monochromes, their pâte, is seldom pure white porcelain, but close-grained, reddish stone-ware. This is an interesting point for the connoisseur; and it may be supplemented by saying that generally in the choicest pieces of mirror black neither the bottom nor the inner surface has white glaze. These parts are either covered with the same black glaze as that seen on the rest of the specimen, or they have a warm brown glaze. The presence of white glaze, however, is not to be regarded as condemning a piece. It is found on the bottoms and interiors of many specimens of mirror black which, but for the absence of golden speckles, would rank high among monochromes. These are further distinguished by their pâte of true porcelain. As for the U-chin, or metallic black, the duller variety of it is typically seen in the the "Black Hawthorns" and black grounds with enamelled decoration so highly prized by Western collectors, as well as in numerous but decidedly inferior productions of the Kang-hsi, and subsequent eras, where the black surface is ornamented with an imperfectly fired tracery of gold. Close inspection of these various specimens of U-chin will generally disclose a greenish tinge, more or less marked and plainly due to defective technique. The more brilliant variety, on the other hand, is either pure black, or if it has any tints of green and blue, owes them to iridescence. This latter glaze is found, for the most part, on very thin, delicately manufactured specimens of fine porcelain—chiefly bowls and plates—dating from the Yung-ching, and Chien-lung eras. In the "Catalogue of Ching-tê-chên Manufactures" contained in the "Annals of Fu-liang," and quoted in M. Julien's "Porcelain Chinoise," it is distinguished as "email noir mat de l'Europe" and is characterised as a new production, which last term is also applied to vases having gold decoration on a black ground.

There appears to have been comparatively little difficulty in manufacturing black glaze of a certain merit. Many specimens made during the nineteenth century, though sombre and heavy, are often purchased by collectors as genuine examples of choice old mirror black. They are invariably of common, inelegant shapes, and indications of faulty technique may be detected either in air-bubbles and pitting in the glaze, or in crude, ill manipulated biscuit. Examples of black monochromes older than the present dynasty are scarcely ever to be found in the hands of Chinese bric-à-brac dealers. They are much commoner in Japan, where the Tea Clubs always valued them highly and preserved them carefully.

BROWN.

A monochrome of great merit is the Tzü-chin, or golden brown. This is the fond laque of French connoisseurs. It has also been called "dead-leaf" glaze, a term which fairly describes its colour but conveys a false idea of its gloss and brilliancy. It is of considerable antiquity, being found on the Chien-yao of the Sung dynasty, where it is used either as a monochrome on the outer surface of cups and bowls, or as a ground for bluish white spotting and dappling. Its manufacture was revived under the Ming dynasty. The fact is mentioned in the "History of Ching-tê-chên Wares," and among the articles requisitioned for imperial use in the Lung-chin era (1567-1612) there are included rice-bowls of deep brown, and light golden brown, with dragons faintly engraved under the glaze. This question of date deserves special notice, because M. d'Entrecolles erroneously speaks of the Tzü-chin as a new invention of his time (1715). For the rest, his note on the subject is interesting and instructive. "There is another glaze," he writes, "called Tzü-chin-yu, that is to say, golden brown. I should be disposed to call it rather glaze of the colour of coffee, or bronze or dead leaves. To make it, common yellow clay is taken and treated after the manner of porcelain earth. Of this only the finest parts are employed. They are thrown into water, and formed into a sort of paste as liquid as the purest white glazing material prepared from petrosilex. The two—i.e. the material obtained from the yellow clay and that from petrosilex—have to be subsequently mixed, and in order to determine whether they have been brought to the same degree of consistency, bricks of porcelain are dipped into them, and the marks of the liquids on the bricks in each case are compared. To the combined liquids there is further added a compound of lime and fern ashes, which has been brought to a similar state of consistency. The proportions in which the three are mixed depend upon the nature of the colour which it is desired to produce. . . . At one time it was customary to manufacture cups with this golden brown glaze outside, and a pure white glaze on the inner surface. Subsequently the method was varied, and when a vase was to receive the Tzü-chin-yu, small spaces, round or square, were covered beforehand with moistened paper. After applying the glazing material, these papers were removed, and the unglazed spaces thus reserved were decorated with red or blue. When the porcelain was dry it received the usual colourless, translucid glaze, either by immersion or insufflation. Some artists filled the reserved medallions with an uniform ground of azure or black, with the intention of applying designs in gold after the first stoving." M. Salvétat says that French keramists have experienced no difficulty in imitating the Tzü-chin glaze, but in China and Japan its production has never been deemed easy. The celebrated Hao Shih-chu, who flourished at the end of the sixteenth century, is said to have been remarkable for his skill in manufacturing monochromes of this kind. The colour varies from chocolate to light brown. Decoration in white slip was often added with excellent effect. In comparatively modern and valueless pieces the Tzü-chin often covers outside surfaces while the interiors have a glaze of impure mazarine blue or green. Specimens of brown monochromes are seldom of large dimensions. Rice-cups, bowls, plates, and small vases are the usual examples. Good pieces generally have designs engraved under the glaze.

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