China: Its History, Arts, and Literature/Volume 1/Chapter 3
Chapter III
WARES OF THE "SUNG" (960-1279) DYNASTY
Although the conclusions hitherto stated have been based chiefly upon written records, and therefore lack the certainty imparted by actual examination of a number of authentic specimens, the student can be reasonably sure that up to the middle of the tenth century the highest achievement of the Chinese keramist was stone-ware or semi-porcelain, and that his glazes were all monochromes, green, white, and muddy yellow, the first two being intended to imitate jade.
Henceforth firmer ground is trodden. Japanese annals and traditions assist, especially as their trustworthiness is established from point to point by a remarkable work which Dr. S. W. Bushell of the British Legation in Peking, recently translated. It is a manuscript entitled Li tai ming ts'u t'ou p'u, or "Illustrated Description of the Celebrated Wares of different Dynastics." The author, Hsiang Yuan-p'ien, was a writer and artist of renown, who flourished during the second half of the sixteenth century. An ardent virtuoso, he devoted much of his time to collecting choice specimens of the wares of the Sung, Yuan, and Ming dynasties. From the pieces which thus came into his possession and from those in the possession of his friends, he selected eighty-two. Of these he gives pictures, executed with great care in colours and accompanied by descriptions which, though they leave much to be desired, are nevertheless of the greatest value for the sake of both the confirmatory and the original information they afford.
Under the Sung dynasty (960-1260) the principal wares manufactured were seven in number, namely, Ting-yao, Kuan-yao, Kao-yao Lung-chuan-yao Ju-yao, Chün-yao, and Chien-yao.
The Ting-yao was first manufactured at a place called Ting-chou, in the northern province of Pechili. There is some uncertainty as to the exact date of its origin. According to the pharmacopeia of the Tang dynasty, as quoted by Dr. Hirth, a powder prepared from white keramic ware of Ting-chou was used for medicinal purposes as far back as the seventh century, and it has already been seen that during the Tang dynasty Pechili produced two varieties of white ware called Hing-yao and Tsin-yao. It is possible that confusion may have existed between products presenting so many points of resemblance. At all events, it was not till the Sung period that the Ting-yao of Pechili came into note. It was then a fine stone-ware or semi-porcelain, having light grey pâte. There were three principal varieties of glaze, viz., white, grape colour (purplish), and black. Of these the white was the most important. A work on antiquarian subjects, published in 1387, says:—"Old Ting porcelain is valuable if the paste is fine and the colour white and brilliant. Low qualities are coarse and of a yellowish colour. If it has marks as of tears: they may be taken as evidence of genuineness. Specimens having ornamental designs cut into the paste are the most excellent. Plain pieces are also good. Those which have ornaments worked into (or painted on) the glaze are of the second quality. The best specimens were made during the periods Chêng-ho (1111-1117) and Hsüan-ho (1119-1125); but these are difficult to procure. Brown ware was also made at Ting-chou, and a black variety resembling black lacquer in colour." Dr. Hirth, who gives this extract, quotes further from another Chinese work to the effect that the ornaments of the Ting-yao were (1) engraved, or cut into the paste; (2) worked into the glaze or painted, and (3) printed or pressed on with a mould. It will be well to explain at once that the term "painted" is not to be understood here in its ordinary sense. Keramic decoration by painting with colours under or over the glaze, was not practised by the Ting-chou potters. The process described as "painting" probably meant decoration with slip, whether above or below the glaze, but there are no means of determining this with certainty. The general description of the Sung Ting-yao is that it was semi-porcelain, with fine, greyish pâte, tolerably thin and sonorous, and a creamy glaze, seldom crackled, closely resembling the shell of an egg in colour, but sometimes showing a pronounced tinge of buff. The decorative designs, usually incised in the pâte, consisted, for the most part, of the Fei-fêng (flying phœnix), the dragon, the peony, arabesques and scrolls. The pure white variety was called Pai-ting; that showing a tinge of buff was called Fan-ting. With regard to the "tear-marks" mentioned by the Chinese writers quoted above, they were nothing more or less than technical imperfections. When the glazing material is applied by absorption to ware that has already been fired, a uniform surface is easy to obtain. But when the glazing is effected while the paste is still raw, globules or "tears" are not unlikely to make their appearance. That such a feature should have been esteemed by connoisseurs was doubtless because, in the first place, it pointed to times when technical excellence had not yet been attained; and in the second, the tear-marks would naturally occur upon ware of such exceptionally thin pâte that manipulation before stoving was difficult. Another point to be noted with reference to the manufacture of this early Ting ware was that the cups and bowls were stoved in an inverted position, the consequence being that the upper rims remained without glaze, whereas the bottoms were often completely covered. To correct the unfinished appearance of such pieces, a thin slip of silver or copper was usually applied to their rims.
In the Illustrated Catalogue of H'siang, mentioned above, forty-two specimens of Sung ware are depicted. Twelve of these specimens belong to the Ting-yao class, six being white; of the rest five are purple, or the colour of ripe grapes; and one is black. From the pictures of these pieces and from the descriptions given by H'siang himself, as translated by Dr. Bushell, it is seen at once that there is question of keramic productions exhibiting an advanced condition of expert skill. If the Sung Ting-yao has been spoken of above as semi-porcelain, it is rather because of the softness and comparative opacity of the pâte than with any reference to the rank which the ware ought to occupy. It is probable that the manufacture of hard porcelain was within the competence of the Pechili keramists under the Sung dynasty, but that, like many of their successors, to be by and by spoken of, they preferred the artistic qualities of a soft, tender pâte. Only with the latter as a basis was it possible to produce the lustrous, translucid, and yet solid glaze so much valued by connoisseurs, who compared it to mutton fat or fine jade.
In addition to the white, purple, and black varieties of the Ting-yao, tradition says that a red glaze was manufactured. It was called Hung-ting. Julien, in his translation of the Tao-lu, says that the red Ting-yao was much valued, but no specimens of it appear to have survived, nor is subsequent mention made of it.
It need scarcely be observed that genuine specimens of the original Ting-yao are very difficult to procure. It was, however, imitated with success in subsequent eras. During the Yuan dynasty (1260-1369) an expert called Pêng Chün-pao, whose factory was at Ho-chou in the province of Kiang-nan, distinguished himself by such imitations. His ware was known as Hsin-Ting-yao (New Ting-yao). It is said to have been exceedingly fragile, so that few pieces are likely to have been handed down to late generations. The Ting-yao chiefly known to collectors is a product of the Ching-tê-chên factories during the Ming (1367-1644) and early part of the present dynasty. This is not necessarily an imitation of the early Ting-yao, being usually of superior technique. The potter of the Ming and Tsing eras was not so faithful to his models that he deemed it necessary to reproduce their blemishes as well as their beauties. He may have been occasionally baffled by the richness, lustre, and tone of the early glazes, but the wares themselves he could easily excel, and in nine cases out of every ten, the clay required to imitate their pâte exactly was not procurable. The Ting-yao of Ching-tê-chên resembles the Sung ware of Pechili in having tender pâte, soft lustrous glaze of the colour of rice-flour (white with a tinge of buff), and decorative designs incised or in relief. But, for the rest, it may be regarded as a special and independent manufacture of great beauty and high artistic quality. Precisely by what characteristics—except excellence of technique and generally harder pâte—it may be distinguished from the Sung ware, there is no possibility of explaining. The species of Ting-yao chiefly manufactured at Ching-tê-chên was the Fan-Ting-yao, or "rice-flour" glaze. The grape-coloured and black varieties were not produced, so far as is known.
Among the keramic manufactures of the Sung dynasty, a ware of some importance was the Ki-chou-yao, produced at Kichou, in the province of Kiang-si. It does not, however, deserve to be separately classified, since it was virtually nothing more than an inferior variety of Ting-yao. The pâte is said to have been thick and somewhat coarse, but the glaze was rich and lustrous, showing the same white and grape-purple colours as the Ting-yao. Associated with its production are the names of a potter, Shu Hung, and his daughter, Shu Chiao, who were noted for their skill. Vases made by the latter were valued, according to the Tao-lu, at several ounces of silver each.
There is some reason to suppose that the celebrated "transmutation," or flambé, ware—to be spoken of by and by—had its origin at the Ki-chou potteries. For a tradition is handed down to the effect that a batch of vases, which happened to be in the oven just as a high official passed, were changed into jade, whereupon the workmen closed the kiln and fled in trepidation.
In addition to the choice varieties of Ting-yao described above, there was also produced at the same factory (in Pechili) during the Sung dynasty, a coarser species called Tu-Ting-yao, which term literally signifies "Ting pottery." The difference between this and the fine Ting-yao is that the pâte of the former has much greater thickness and solidity, and that the glaze is invariably crackled, sometimes in small meshes, sometimes in large. Occasionally the glaze is entirely without lustre, closely resembling the shell of an egg. The colour of this Tu-Ting-yao has a distinctly deeper tinge of yellow than that of the fine Ting-yao, and it belongs altogether to an inferior order of manufacture. Considerable quantities of it found their way to Japan, where they were erroneously regarded, and are still regarded, as Cochin-Chinese products. The origin of the misconception is obscure. Possibly the Tu-Ting-yao reached Japan in the first place via Siam or Canton, and was thus associated with southern potteries. At all events, specimens of this so-called Kôchi-yaki (Kôchi is the Japanese term for Cochin China) are frequently found in Japanese collections, where they constitute a source of persistent error. So far as is known, nothing resembling them in any respect was ever produced at the Annamese or Siamese factories. Dr. Hirth, in his interesting brochure, "Ancient Chinese Porcelain," adduces evidence from a Chinese work (the Chu-fan-chih, by Chao Ju-kua) published in the early part of the thirteenth century, to the effect that the nearest of the foreign places to which porcelain was shipped from the Middle Kingdom soon after A.D. 1200, was Chan-chêng, a district included in Cochin China. It might be conjectured that specimens of Tu-Ting-yao, included among these imports, found their way to Japan from Chan-chêng, and were identified with their port of shipment rather than with their original place of manufacture, as was the case with the well known "Old Japan" ware of Western collectors, which, though produced at Arita, was everywhere called Imari-yaki, after its place of export (Imari). Against such a theory, however, has to be set the well established fact that there existed, during the Sung dynasty, a much brisker direct trade between China and Japan than between the former and Cochin China. Indeed, the very author (Chao Ju-kua) quoted by Dr. Hirth in this context, says that large Chinese junks were engaged, in his time, transporting timber—notably planks of the Cryptomeria Japonica—from Japan to the Chinese port of Ch'üan-chou, and it is scarcely credible that these junks, on their return journey, would have failed to bring Chinese keramic wares to Japan, where such objects of art had been held in high esteem ever since the sev- enth or eighth century of the Christian era. Of course a general inference of this sort does not necessarily include a special product like the Tu-Ting-yao. Specimens of that particular ware may have reached Japan viâ Cochin China, and thus been erroneously attributed to the factories of the latter. Unfortunately the evidence available does not suffice to elucidate this matter.
It has to be remembered that when the Sung dynasty is spoken of there is question of a period of over three centuries. Under ordinary circumstances, great progress should have been made in the keramic art during that long interval. But in 1127 the Sung emperors changed their capital from Peking to Nankin, and that event, generally spoken of in Chinese history as "the passage of the Sung to the south," resulted in the division of the empire into two Kingdoms, the invading Tartars holding sway in the north, and the Sung sovereigns reigning in the south. Tradition says that the change of capital seriously influenced the potter's trade. The factory at Ting-chou in Pechili was transferred to Nan-chang in Kiang-si, and the manufacture of Ting-yao, ceasing at the former place, was re-commenced at the latter. This Nan-chang was in the immediate neighbourhood of Ching-tê-chên, the great centre of Chinese keramic industry. But in the early part of the twelfth century the resources of the place do not appear to have been developed, for the Ting-yao produced there did not enjoy as high a reputation as its northern predecessor. Connoisseurs distinguished the two wares, that of the northern factory of Ting-chou and that of the southern factory of Nan-chang, as Pai-ting, or white Ting, and Nan-ting, or southern Ting. The latter was also called Fan-ting, or "rice-flour" Ting. The manufacture of the former lasted from 960 to 1126; that of the latter from 1127 to 1279. These dates refer, of course, to Sung Ting-yao only. The reader will readily understand that as Nan-chang, or Chingtê-chên, continued in after years to be the very metropolis of Chinese pottery, its experts did not lose but rather developed, their ability to produce Ting-yao. Under the Sung emperors, however, it is asserted that the material employed for the biscuit of the Ting-yao made at Nan-chang was not so fine or close-grained as that used by the Ting-chou potters. The superiority in respect of delicacy of pâte and purity of colour thus rested with the Pai-ting. On the other hand, it is certain that technical processes were continually progressing through this long interval, and that the ware of the thirteenth century appreciably excelled that of the tenth in many important features. Chinese authors themselves state that the most beautiful pieces of northern Ting-yao were manufactured in the interval between 1111 and 1125; that is to say, just before political troubles compelled the transfer of the factory from Ting-chou to Nan-chang. It is reasonable to suppose that the potters did not leave their technical skill behind them at Ting-chou, and that their work in the south continued to improve as it had done in the north. But there is little to guide in this matter. Practical experience of the Ting-yao of the Sung dynasty leaves the student completely in the dark in respect of such fine distinctions as Pai-ting and Nan-ting.
It will be well to pass from the Ting-yao to the Ju-yao because the latter is said to have had its origin in technical defects of the former. The Tao-lu says that the glaze of the Ting-yao was often disfigured by fissures and other faults, due to imperfectly prepared materials or unskilled stoving. These blemishes proved so embarrassing and unavoidable that, in 1130 A.D., imperial orders were issued for the establishment of a special factory at Juchou, in the province of Kiang-su. Here the Ju-yao was produced. A Chinese writer, whose work was published at the close of the sixteenth century, says that the Chai and Ju porcelains, though the best of all, had ceased to exist in his time. The same writer's father, however, mentions that in his day specimens of Ju-yao were 
Sacrificial Jar (Copied from an Old Bronze) of White Ting-Yao.
Sung dynasty. (Catalogue of H'siang.) Height 4½ inches. (See page 26.)
He repeats this same error more than once, and his translation has thus been the means of deceiving connoisseurs with respect to the nature of several of the early Chinese wares. Julien's misconception—originally pointed out by the writer of these pages in 1881, in the Chrysanthemum—is alluded to at length in a recent brochure by Dr. Hirth. The fact is that the ideograph Ching employed by the author of the Tao-lu, may be properly rendered by "blue" in the great majority of cases. Thus the decoration on blue-and-white porcelain of later generations is called Chinghwa, and the same ideograph (ching) is used to describe the colour of the blue cotton coats worn by the lower orders in China. Julien was naturally deceived, not having the aid of research in loco and practical knowledge to verify his opinion. And of course when, in one instance, he had committed himself to the rendering "blue," he adhered to it consistently throughout, although it involved him in such anomalies as "onion-blue." The Ju-yao was unquestionably céladon. As for the nature of the ware, it is on record that the clay employed at Juchou was red; though there is nothing to indicate whether it was red originally or whether it became red in the furnace—a peculiar property, as will be seen by and by, representative of early Chinese céladon. In the Tao-lu the pâte of the Ju-yao is said to have been of fine quality and to have shone like copper, from which and other evidences it may safely be inferred that there is here no question of translucid porcelain. Indeed, the statement may be made at once that all the choice céladons of the Sung, the Yuan, and even the Ming dynasties were stone-ware, showing considerable variation in respect to fineness of pâte and thinness of biscuit, but never becoming true translucid porcelain. Of course the conclusion is not to be drawn that to manufacture translucid porcelain was beyond the keramic competence of the time. On the contrary, an opaque pâte seems to have been deliberately preferred as a suitable basis for Ching-tsu (green-coloured) glaze. It is exceedingly probable that, like all early-period céladons, that Ju-yao had pâte which was white except at places directly exposed to the heat of the kiln; that, in short, its clay, when not protected by the glaze, assumed a red, or red-brown tinge in the oven. Paucity of authenticated specimens precludes absolute certainty about these points. Japanese connoisseurs maintain, however, that this so-called "iron base" is not necessarily found in the best examples of Ju-yao, though it does constitute a mark of authenticity in the case of early céladons generally. Reference will be made to the point hereafter. The glaze of the Ju-yao presented great merits. It was so soft and lustrous that connoisseurs compared it to congealed fat. Its colour varied from a green almost verging upon a blue to white barely tinged with green. Very frequently the surface was crackled; sometimes it was entirely without crackle, specimens of the latter character being most highly prized. In the Tao-lu it is stated that the crackle of the Ju-yao was of two varieties. In the first case the surface was covered with a network of close, circular meshes, not inaptly likened by connoisseurs to the roe of fishes: in the second, the crackle assumed an appearance distinguished as the "crab's claw" fashion. Julien's words are:—"Suivant l'ouvrage intitulé khe-kou-yao-lun, ceux qui offraient dans le vernis des yeux (boutons) de Tsong (Aralia) imitant les raies des pattes de crabes, étaient encore plus beaux:" Concerning this perplexing passage M. Salvétat makes only the following remark:—"Les pièces de cette sorte sont extrêmement rares." What is to be understood by crackle—if indeed there is question of crackle at all—compared, at the same time, to crab's claws and Aralia leaves? Dr. Bushell, than whom no higher authority is to be found among Western connoisseurs, says that these "crab's-claw" marks, so far from being an embellishment, were imperfections that they were simply little holes in the glaze, as though a crab had walked over it before firing. How pieces showing such blemishes can have been highly esteemed, one is at a loss to understand. The simile of "boutons de Aralia" has reference to chagrined glaze, something quite different from the so-called "crab's-claw" marking. In the glaze of these antique wares—especially in choice specimens of Sing Chün-yao, to be presently described—serrated, or V-shaped, lines are sometimes found that have been erroneously supposed to belong to the "crab's-claw" type. These lines are not crackle: they may be better described as dappling. They are not continuous, and it is almost inconceivable that they can have been produced at will. Resulting, probably, from more or less accidental conditions of temperature in the kiln, their effect, nevertheless, is to impart to the surface of the piece an appearance of softness and richness greatly prized by Chinese virtuosi.
In the "Illustrated Catalogue" of H'siang, translated by Dr. Bushell, three specimens of Ju-yao are depicted and described. They are céladons, having a glaze of "bluish-green" tint. The shapes and decoration are copied from ancient bronzes, designs incised and in relief—scroll pattern, spirals, and so forth—being employed to relieve the uniformity of the surface. To produce the peculiar delicate-green of this ware, the potters are said to have powdered red calcedony and added it to the glazing material. Experience had evidently taught them that this highly siliceous mineral turns white under the action of heat. It is seen from H'siang's pictures that the potters of the Ju-yao exercised admirable expertness in modelling, moulding, and graving. Chinese keramists have always been remarkable for such work. The great test of skill at the Juchou factory was the quality of the céladon glaze. Its delicate greenish blue colour, lustre, and softness combined with solidity belong to a very high range of achievement. The best specimens are said to have been without crackle, but H'siang's catalogue does not support that dictum.
In the early days of its manufacture certain pieces of Ju-yao were stoved in an inverted position, and in order to hide their unglazed rims slender rings of copper or silver were fitted to them. This device, originally dictated by the presence of a defect, subsequently came to be regarded as a distinctive mark, and continued to be employed long after its real purpose had ceased to exist. Allusion is made to the practice in the Tao-lu, but the translator, not unnaturally perplexed by so strange a device, misinterpreted it. Most Western collectors have doubtless observed that bowls and cups of early-period Chinese wares generally have their rims protected, or, to speak more correctly, concealed by strips of metal, but few are likely to place much reliance on such a feature as a means of identification.
It is stated in the Tao-lu that on the bottom of Ju-yao vases flowers of the sesame were "painted." The same criticism applies to this as to the so-called "painted" designs of the Ting-yao: the Sung potters did not paint their wares by way either of decoration or of mark. The sesame flowers referred to here were either engraved in the paste, or moulded in slight relief under the glaze. Whether they were invariably employed to mark choice examples of the ware it is impossible to tell, but the specimens figured in H'siang's catalogue do not appear to be thus distinguished.
Not less important than the Ting-yao and the Ju-yao among wares of the Sung dynasty was the Kuan-yao, or "Imperial Ware." The quality of the ware did not procure for it its distinguished title. It was called "Imperial" simply because the Emperor himself (1107 A.D.) established the factory where it was produced, at Peng-liang or Kai-fêng-fu, in the province of Honan. The clay is said to have been fine, but that it was not a porcelain stone may be gathered from the fact that the rims of the pieces, after stoving, sometimes had a purple-brown tint, and that the pâte at the base showed an iron-red colour. It was, in short, stone-ware. Wherever the thickness of the glaze did not suffice to conceal the paste completely, the dark colour of the latter became more or less apparent. In the early days of the manufacture three varieties were produced; namely, clair-de-lune, called by the Chinese Yueh-pai, i.e., moon-white; light green, and dark green. The first variety did not win public esteem, and after a time the typical Kuan-yao became a céladon, of various shades of green. The great aim of the potters was to produce that peculiar delicate greenish blue compared to the tint of the firmament between rain-clouds. It will be seen, therefore, that as to colour the Ju-yao and Kuan-yao potters worked on the same lines. If a distinction is to be drawn between the results they achieved, the verdict will be that the Ju-yao showed a more delicate tinge and verged more closely upon the ideal cerulean than the Kuan-yao. Moreover, in richness and lustre of glaze the advantage is said to have been slightly on the side of the Ju-yao. As a general rule the Kuan-yao was crackled. The crackle was large and regular. It is compared by Chinese connoisseurs to the markings of starred ice. In their treatment of this crackle, the Kuan-yao potters struck out a new line. For while the piece was still hot, after emerging from the kiln—that is to say, before the cracks had entirely contracted in the process of cooling—vermilion was strongly rubbed over the surface. The pigment thus became permanently fixed in the main crackle, as well as in the fringe of subsidiary and almost imperceptible fissures that radiated from its edges; and in the result the surface of the piece appeared covered with a vermilion network, bordered here and there by little clouds of red. The effect was novel and pretty.
The potters of the Kuan-yao adopted the same models and decorative designs as the potters of the Ju-yao and the Ting-yao: they copied ancient bronzes. Throughout the whole of the Sung period the same type of shapes and decoration is found. A better choice could scarcely have been made, for the forms of many of the old bronzes are eminently graceful, and their decorative designs show much wealth of fancy.
The number of specimens of Kuan-yao produced at the original factory (Peng-liang) was probably not large, inasmuch as the manufacture continued for twenty years only (1107-1126). Those twenty years, too, were in great part occupied by a struggle between the Chinese and the Tartars. The policy of the Sung emperors had been essentially one of peace: under their rule the empire attained a high state of civilization at the expense of its martial prowess. Unable to make head against the valour of the invading Tartars, the Sung ruler decided, in 1127, to move his capital from Kai-fêng-fu to Hang-chou. Simultaneously with this event, which is generally termed the passing of the Sung to the south, the potteries at Peng-liang appear to have been closed, and in their stead a factory was opened within the precincts of the yamen occupied by the Mayor of the Imperial Palace in Hang-Chou. The ware produced there was called sometimes Nei-yao, or "ware of the palace," but more general Kuan-yoa, or "Imperial ware." In all its essential features it closely resembled the original Kuan-yao, described above.
Ten specimens of Sung Kuan-yao are depicted in the illustrated Catalogue of H'siang. They are all céladons, their colours ranging through "pale green," light green," "onion green," and bluish green." One only is not crackled.
It is necessary to warn the reader against confounding the Kuan-yao of the Sung dynasty with the Kuan-yao manufactured during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries at Ching-tê-chên. The latter is, for the most part, of an entirely different character. It will be described in its place. Here it need only be observed that the term Kuan-yao, in its later use, signified simply "Imperial porcelain," and not a special product of a particular epoch.
The Kuan-yao, as the latest keramic effort of the Sung dynasty, ought to represent the highest achievement of the era's keramic art. But although in the method of treating the crackle, in accuracy of moulding and in general finish, the ware may be said to have excelled anything previously produced, the fact is recorded that the advantage was with the Ju-yao in respect of richness and lustre of glaze and delicacy of colour. To these two wares belong incomparably the finest céladons of ancient times.
Dr. Hirth translates the following passage from the Tao-shuo, as quoted by the Po-wu-yao-lan:—"As regards Kuan-yao, it should be known that the porcelain earth found at the foot of the Fêng-huang-shan (Phoenix Hill) near Hang-chou, is red. For this reason 'the foot' (tsu, technically that part of the bottom on which the vessel rests when being fired, and which is therefore not covered by the enamel; especially applied to the rings seen on the bottom of old céladon vessels) resembles iron in colour. This was at the time called red-mouthed and iron-footed.' The term 'red mouth' refers to the brim, or opening, of the vessel: the latter becomes red by the enamel flowing down and away from it so as to be much thinner on the brim than on the body of the vessel, which allows spots of red paste to become visible."
It is convenient to speak here of another ware of the Sung period, resembling, in its general features, both the Kuan-yao and the Ju-yao. This is the Jung-yao. Like the Kuan-yao, it was manufactured originally at Kai-fêng-fu, in Honan, and subsequently at Hang-chou in Chêkiang. It derived its name from the fact that Kai-fêng-fu was the eastern capital (Jung = east) of the Sung. The clay used for its manufacture was fine in texture, but dark. The glaze was green, of various shades, without crackle. The brown rim and iron-coloured base, so common in old céladons, appeared in most of the Jung-yao pieces. This ware differed from the Kuan-yao and Ju-yao, being coarser and heavier; features that constituted decided inferiorities. One specimen of Sung Jung-yao is figured in the Illustrated Catalogue of H'siang. It has bright green glaze, compared to jade, with floral decoration in relief. Owing to its thickness and solidity, examples of the Jung-yao descended to later centuries, and its colour was taken as a model by the céladon manufacturers of Ching-tê-chên in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Hang-chou, the Quinsai of Marco Polo, was one of the principal channels of traffic between China and the outer world during the Sung era. There can be little doubt that numerous specimens of early céladon found their way from it to countries west of the Middle Kingdom. Pieces of the Jung-yao produced at Hang-chou, were probably among the number.
One of the most important wares of the Sung dynasty was the Lung-chuan-yao, manufactured at the Liu-tien factory near Lung-chuan, in the province of Chêkiang. It is said to have been originated by two brothers, whose surname was Chang. The elder was called Shêng-i (first born); the younger, Shêng-êrh (second born). Each had his own factory. The ware produced by the elder brother was distinguished as Ko-yao; that produced by the younger as Chang-yao. Originally, the two were included in the term Lung-Chuan-yao, but by connoisseurs in subsequent centuries the expressions Ko-yao (Ko signifies elder brother) and Lung-chuan-yao came to be used distinctively. Both brothers aimed at producing céladons, the chief difference in their methods being that the older employed crackle while the younger avoided it. This difference must not, however, be invariably looked for. Crackle is found is some specimens of Chang-yao—or Lung-chuan-yao as it will henceforth be called—but it is never coloured crackle. Shêng-i's ware (the Ko-yao) resembles the Kuan-yao in having a network of crackle—sometimes fine, sometimes bold-coloured with vermilion, and occasionally with Indian ink, whereas in Shêng-êrh's ware (the Chang-yao or Lung-chuan-yao) when crackle occurs it is simply untinted fissures in the glaze. The Lung-chuan céladon glaze was more distinctly green than the glaze of either the Ju-yao or the Kuan-yao. Specimens of the last two might doubtless be classed with specimens of the first in respect of colour, but as a general rule the tinge of blue so much esteemed by the Chinese connoisseur did not exist in the Lung-chuan-yao. The typical variety of glaze was strong sea-green, often more or less impure in tone. It is singular to observe how M. Julien's persistence induces him to call the Lung-chuan-yao "blue porcelain." M. d'Entrecolles, whose long residence and practical experience in China ought to have rendered his testimony conclusive, described the ware's colour as "vert-olive." M. Julien, however, adhering to his original interpretation of the ideograph Ching, writes:—"La couleur bleue était le caractère dominant des porcelaines anciennes qui provenaient de Lung-chuan."
Many specimens of the Lung-chuan-yao were ornamented with designs in relief, sometimes copied from ancient bronzes; sometimes consisting of floral scrolls, arabesques, and so forth. Occasionally portions of the surface were left unglazed, and upon the figure subjects—as the Eight Taoist Immortals, the Seven Gods of Happiness, the Kylin or the Phoenix—were moulded in high relief. A very common fashion in this style of decoration was to mould two unglazed fishes on the bottom of a bowl or plate. Incised designs are also frequently met with. In them, as well as in raised designs, nothing is commoner than a scroll of peonies.
The porcelain stone used in the manufacture of Lung-chuan ware is said by the author of the Tao-lu to have been fine and white. This description applies to the condition of those parts of the stone not exposed to the direct action of heat in the porcelain kiln. When so exposed, the pâte became red, or reddish brown, and this change of colour is an essential mark of genuineness. Beautiful céladons were manufactured at Ching-tê-chên during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but they lack the "red mouth and iron foot" of the true Lung-chuan-yao. In the Kuan-yao also the pâte shows these colours, but whereas the porcelain stone used in the manufacture of the Kuan-yao appears to have been red originally, that used in the manufacture of the Lung-chuan-yao became red under the action of heat.
Dr. Hirth has collected from Chinese literature the following extracts having reference to the wares produced at Lung-chuan:—
EXTRACTS FROM THE T'AO-SHUO (Ch. 2, P. 10 seq.).
1.—The Ko-yao of the Sung Dynasty.
The porcelain factories of Liu-t'ien at Lung-chuan were originally in the hands of two brothers, natives of Ch'u-chou, whose surname was Chang, the elder of whom was called Shêng-i (i.e., the first born), whereas the younger brother's name was Shêng-êrh (i.e., the second born). Each of the two brothers owned a factory, and the porcelain which came from the factory of the elder brother [in Chinese Ko] was called Ko-yao, or Elder Brother's Porcelain, to distinguish it from the produce of the other factory.
2.—The Ko-ku-yao-lun [A.D. 1387] says of the old Koyao: 'Its colour is ch'ing-green of various shades, and it comprises porcelains which have "the iron foot and the red mouth," of which specimens having a good colour may be classed with Tung-yao, though there are few to be found at present.'
3.—The P'ai-shih-lei-p'ien says: 'When its paste is fine and thin, and the enamel pure and clear, this porcelain is highly valued. Ko-yao will then have short cracks which are called Pai-chi-sui.' (Lit. the crackle of the hundred dangers.)
4.—The Ch'un-feng-t'ang-sui-p'i says: 'Ko-yao is of a dead white and has short cracks.
5.—The Po-wu-yao-lan says: 'The characteristic feature of Kuan-yao consists in its having cracks underneath the glaze resembling the claws of a crab, that of Ko-yao in its having cracks like fish-spawn; with the difference that its enamel does not come up to that of Kuan-yao.' (The true significance of the "crab's claw" marks has been explained in the text.)
6.—The Wu-ts'a-tsu says: 'Apart from Ch'ai-yao, the porcelains of the Sung Dynasty, viz., those of Ting, Ju, Kuan, and Ko have been preserved to the present day, but it is only the Ko-yao, of which it is not too difficult to obtain specimens, owing to their peculiar heaviness, which enables them to keep well, whereas it was difficult to preserve the Ting and Ju porcelains for such a length of time.'
7.—The Lung-chaun-yao of the Sung Dynasty: 'This is the pottery made by Chan Shêng-êhr, i.e., Chang the younger, and since the porcelain made by the elder brother was already called Ko-yao, while the younger brother continued his factory at Lung-chuan, the old name of this porcelain was Lung-chuan-yao.'
8.—The Pai-shih-lei-p'ien says: 'The porcelain of Lunchuan is up to the present day called Chang-yao [i.e., Chang's Porcelain] by the people of Wên-chow and Ch'u-chow.'
9.—The Ko-ku-yao-lun (A.D. 1387) says: 'The old Lung-chuan-yao is now called Ch'u-ch'i [Ware of Ch'u-chou-fu] or Ching-ch'i [Green Ware]. Old Ching-ch'i [Green Ware], if fine and thin in paste and of tsui-ching green colour (Kingfisher's green), is highly valued. There are specimens which are of a pale ching-green colour (mealy or muddy green), and there is a variety consisting of basins which have a pair of fishes at the bottom or have on the outer side brass rings serving as handles; they are of thick and heavy make and not very superior.'
10.—The Po-wu-yao-lan says: The better specimens of Lung-chuan porcelain are able to compete with Kuan-yao and Ko-yao; but there is not much in the way of a crackled surface or a brown paste; and owing to their being thick and solid in make, they can stand a very good deal of wear and tear and will not easily spoil.'
11.—The Ch'ing-pi-tsang says: Old Lung-chuan porcelain is fine in paste, thick in make, and has an intense onion-green or tree-green colour. The better specimens may compete with the Kuan-yao; but there is not much in the way of a crackled surface, a brown paste, and an iron foot. Moreover, they can stand a very good deal of wear and tear and will not easily spoil. But as the manufacturers were somewhat clumsy, the workmanship shown in these porcelains cannot be classed as representing the ancient elegance in style. When the white paste is so covered with green enamel that, at the places where it is not put on thick, white patches will shine through,—this is the porcelain burned by Chang Shêng of the Sung dynasty, and therefore called Chang-yao; when compared to the [ordinary] Lung-chuan it displays greater delicacy of workmanship.'
12.—The Ch'un-fêng-t'ang-sui-p'i says: 'The green porcelain made by the younger brother was pure and clear like fine jadestone and much valued by the world; it resembled the Kuan-yao in make. The porcelain made by the elder brother was of a fainter colour.'
Other extracts relating to these wares are also quoted in Dr. Hirth's brochure, but they convey no special information.
Doubts have been expressed about the date when Lung-chuan ware was first manufactured. The Sung dynasty covered a period of three centuries, and considerable progress was evidently made in the keramic art during that long interval. To attribute the origin of a factory to the Sung dynasty is, therefore, unsatisfactorily vague. There is only one authority to fix the era of the Chang brothers. A work quoted by Dr. Hirth says that they lived during the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1280), and the earliest Lung-chuan céladons may therefore be referred to the first half of the twelfth century.
It is on record that there were two Lung-chuan factories. One was at Liu-tien, sixty miles distant from Lung-chuan. The choicest céladon was produced there. The second was at a village called Chin-tsun. Inferior specimens of Lung-chuan-yao were potted there. Liu-tien stood at the foot of a hill (called Liu-hua-shan), on the top of which there was supposed to be an unfathomable lake.
Among early Chinese wares the Lung-chaun-yao bequeathed to later generations incomparably the largest number of specimens. Genuine but inferior examples are procurable with little difficulty. Plates and bowls are most common, but vases, censers and so forth, may often be found. With exceptions so rare as to be scarcely worthy of mention, these pieces are of the clumsy thick variety. Their pâte is heavy and dense, well calculated to resist the effects of ordinary accidents; their glaze is olive or sea-green, and their decorative designs, whether impressed, engraved, or in relief, generally consist of floral scrolls and diapers. They owe their preservation to their solidity. "My enquiries among the natives," writes Dr. Hirth, "have convinced me of one thing, namely, that whereas with regard to many other antiquities it is often difficult to find two Chinese that agree, a most decided uniformity of opinion prevails about this class of porcelain. There is not an intelligent native student (connoisseur) in China who is not able to pick out a piece of Lung-chaun-yao, or a Lung-chaun-ti, for such is the colloquial designation in the north, from a large collection of similar objects without the slightest hesitation. Further, there is only one opinion as to the age of specimens which are not wanting in any of the characteristics. For, since the paste is originally white, which may be proved by examining a broken specimen, whereas all parts of the surface not covered by enamel have turned red or brown in the fire, we have before us an earth possessing a natural quality not possessed by the produce of other kilns, viz., that of changing colour in the fire. I understand from my Chinese informants that this peculiarity cannot be imitated, not even at Ching-tê-chên, and that in order to produce the ferruginous ring in other white porcelains the bottom must be coloured artificially. This is one of the chief characteristics, and one of the tests applied by the natives consists in looking for accidental patches or little spots where the enamel for some reason or other has allowed the raw paste to leak out, these spots coming forward against the intentions of the manufacturer, since they reduce the value of the vessel; if the colour of these patches is genuine, like that of the ring, it helps to increase the confidence in its age, which, in all cases, must be of a date prior to the closing of the factories at Lung-chuan and Ch'u-chou." It must not by any means be assumed, however, that specimens of Lung-Chaun-yao, even though they present the characteristics enumerated here, necessarily date from the Sung era. The vast majority of them probably belong to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. For the factories in Chêkiang remained active until about the year 1620. They were not, indeed, always at the same place. At the beginning of the Ming dynasty (1368), they were moved to Chu-chou-fu, a town on the same river as Lung-chuan, but about 75 miles farther down, and thus situated half way between Lung-chuan and Wên-chow. Here the manufacture was continued briskly, but the productions lost their old excellence. The manner of manipulating the porcelain stone or its quality gradually deteriorated, and the colour of the glaze lost its delicacy.
During the years immediately preceding the transfer of the factory to Chu-chou-fu, the potters of Lui-tien devoted much care to reproductions of the Ko-yao. This was at the close of the Yuan dynasty (about 1350). The porcelain stone was procured from Hang-chou, as in the days of the Chang brothers, but it gave a comparatively coarse, chalky pâte. A Chinese work, quoted by Dr. Hirth, says:—"To imitate the Ko-yao crackle it is impossible to make the iron-coloured bottom. If the imitation has this characteristic, its timbre is bad. Similarly it is impossible to reproduce the pale colour of the original Lung-chuan ware. If the reproduction is accurate in respect of colour, it will not ring. This is one of the points in which the superiority of the old ware becomes apparent."
It has been supposed that the Lung-chuan-yao was pre-eminently the céladon ware of former times. Dr. Hirth has helped to confirm this misconception. Certainly if there is question only of the specimens now procurable in bric-à-brac shops or existing in the collections of Western amateurs, one may assert with tolerable confidence that whenever they date so far back as the Ming dynasty nine hundred and ninety-nine out of every thousand were the work of the Chu-chou potters. But really choice céladons belong either to the Kuan-yao, the Ju-yao, or the true Lung-chuan-yao. These alone are of the highest quality. A fine céladon glaze had been the chief aim of China's best potters long before the days of the brothers Chang.
A book called the Po-wu-yao-lau, translated by Dr. Hirth, says "Kuan-yao as well as of Ko-yao vessels there are pieces which have changed colour during the firing (Yao-p'ieu) and exhibit figures resembling butterflies, birds, fishes, unicorns, or leopards, inasmuch as the colour in part of the original enamel has by some unaccountable process during the firing, undergone a transmutation into light brown or red brown." There will be occasion to speak hereafter of the Yao-p'ieu, or Transmutation ware. Here it will suffice to say that these accidental changes of colour in the kiln, owing to the oxidation of the copper in the glaze, suggested to the early potters a variety of céladon much admired and greatly prized by amateurs in subsequent centuries. In this exceedingly rare ware the uniformity of the surface is relieved by metallic spots, distributed with more or less regularity. In choice specimens the colour of the spots is lustrous, golden brown, and they seem to float suspended, as it were, in the velvety green, or bluish green, glaze. Good examples of this spotted céladon are practically unprocurable, and the estimation in which they are held, added to their scarcity, gives them an extravagant value. In Japan the ware is called Tobi-Seiji. A few pieces exist there in ancient collections, but among the many grand céladons presented by the Shôgun Yoshimasa (1490) and the Regent Hideyoshi (1580) to the principal temples throughout the empire, there is not a single vase of the spotted variety.
One interesting specimen of Sung Ko-yao ware and ten examples of the Lung-chuan-yao are to be seen depicted in the "Illustrated Catalogue" of H'siang. The colour of the Ko-yao piece is pale green; that of the Lung-chuan examples varies from "dark green" and "deep emerald" to "grass green" and the "bright green of fresh onion sprouts." Only one piece of the Lung-chuan-yao is crackled. The forms and decorative designs are borrowed, in almost every case, from ancient bronzes.
To Western eyes one of the most attractive wares manufactured during the Sung dynasty was the Chün-yao. In point of antiquity this ware ranks first among the productions of the dynasty, but by Chinese connoisseurs at the time (second half of the sixteenth century) when the Illustrated Catalogue of H'siang was written, it was placed at the bottom of the list of Sung products. This unfavourable verdict did not, however, receive the endorsement of subsequent critics, and was certainly not admitted by the potters of Ching-tê-chên in the eighteenth century, who spared no pains to reproduce the Chün glazes. The factory stood near the city now called Yü-chou, in the Kai-fêng-fu district of Hônan province, where, at a somewhat later date, the celebrated Kuan-yao céladons were produced. During the Sung Dynasty Yü-chou was called Chün-chou or Chün-tai: hence the term Chün-yao. The factory dated from the beginning of the dynasty, that is to say from about 960 A.D. Like other Sung wares, the Chün-yao undoubtedly improved materially in quality during the three centuries of the dynasty. But as its manufacturers depended entirely on the colour and texture of their glazes, they did not attempt to produce a thin translucid pâte. Generally their ware was thick and solid, though well manipulated and having good timbre. It may be described as very fine stone-ware, showing in places a reddish brown tint. The most esteemed glazes were vermilion red (Chu-hung) and aubergine purple (ch'ieh-tzu). The former was not a brilliant colour, but rather soft and dappled. The latter is compared by Chinese connoisseurs to the purple of ripe grapes. These, however, were not the only colours produced. Moonlight blue (clair-de-lune) and green of various tints are also found. The aubergine variety of Chün-yao appears to have been a monochrome, but the so-called red glazes were polychromatic, their tints merging happily into each other at the edges while retaining their purity. In this latter class the typical variety had delicate clair-de-lune glaze covering the interior of a piece and passing, on the outside, without suggesting any break of continuity, into a colour resembling, but even softer than, that of red hawthorn. The external tint was not uniform, but minutely mottled or dappled throughout, a pleasing play of light and shade being thus produced. In specimens of this class, and indeed in all fine examples of old Chün-yao, the clair-de-lune glaze is broken by flattened v-shaped marks, through which the beautiful azure of the heart of the glaze is apparent. These marks are much valued by Chinese connoisseurs. Their presence or absence alone constitutes, in the eyes of some virtuosi, the difference between excellence and mediocrity. Anyone who has seen specimens of Yueh-pai (clair-de-lune) ware must be familiar with the fact that the deeper azure of the glaze gleams out in spaces of greater or less magnitude, recalling the depths of colour seen through breaks in a fleecy sky. This feature occurs in the Chün-yao, and its description by Chinese writers of former days has greatly perplexed modern translators. It should be observed, however, that clair-de-lune monochromes, though manufactured at Chün-chou, were not greatly esteemed. The combination of clair-de-lune with vermilion red ranked much higher. With regard to the green colour of Chun-yao, the reader must not suppose that there is question of a céladon monochrome. Like the clair-de-lune, this green also occurred in combination with red and even with purple. Specimens showing the three colours—cinnabar red, ripe-grape purple, and green of onion sprouts or kingfisher's plumage—were highly valued and must have been very beautiful, but public acquaintance with them is confined to their reproductions in the Yuan dynasty (1260 and 1367) and by potters of later centuries.
Among the manufactures of these early times the Chün-yao is distinguished by having marks on the bottom of the best specimens. These marks consist of deeply incised numerals, from one to ten. According to the Tao-lu, the numerals, "one" and "two," were used to distinguish choice pieces, but Chinese experts of the present day deny this limit, and assert that up to "ten" the numerals were employed indifferently.
In the "Illustrated Catalogue" of H'siang, four striking examples of the Chün-yao ware are depicted. Three of these are purple monochromes and one has a reddish brown glaze, the "mule's liver" or horse's-lung" glaze of fanciful collectors. "Mucus colour," "pig's-liver," and "mule's-lungs" were terms jestingly and perhaps disparagingly applied by Chinese connoisseurs to impure Chün-yao glazes.
Dr. Hirth, in his pamphlet on "Ancient Chinese Porcelain," translates the following from the Tao-shuo on the subject of Chün wares:—"The Liu-ch'ing-jih-cha says: 'The Chün-yao shows in gradual shades the brilliant effects of all colours, very prominently the t'su-ssu pattern and the ch'ing (green or blue) colour of a blazing flame.'"
With regard to this t'su-ssu-wên, Dr. Hirth says:—
Julien translates this term by 'veines imitant les soies (poils) du lièvre,' and others have adopted this much too literal translation; cf. Marryat, History of Pottery and Porcelain, p. 200: "The most esteemed had veins resembling the fur of the hare." A glance at the passages given under this head in the P'ing-tzu-lei-p'ien (ch. 214, p. 8) shows that t'u-ssu is the name of a vegetable parasite, and as such is associated with that of a similar growth called nü-lo by the Chinese; it is the plant known to botanists as Cuscuta, or as the dodder in common English. Cf. Porter Smith, Chinese Mat. Med., p. 87. I am inclined to think that the metaphor implied in this name refers to a peculiar crackled muster, which is neither the crab's claw muster, nor the fish spawn muster of the Kuan-yao and Ko-yao porcelains, and which may be seen on some old specimens of Chün-yao.
The passage, as here translated, is indeed perplexing. But it is pretty plain that the Chinese author refers not to the colour of the dodder or to any appearance capable of being associated with crackle, but to the variegation of the leaf. The dodder—called by the Japanese ne-nashi-kazura, or the rootless parasite—is often spoken of in this sense. What the passage in the Liu-ch'ing-jih-cha conveys is that the colours of the Chün-yao presented a variegated appearance, like the green and white on the leaf of the dodder, and that the deeper azure at the heart of the clair-de-lune glaze gleamed out in places like the steely blue in the centre of a flame. The fitness of this latter simile is easily recognised.
"The Po-wu-yao-lan says: 'The highest quality consists of pieces having a colour as red as cinnabar, and as green as onion-leaves and kingfisher's plumage, which is commonly called the green of the parrot and the purple brown colour of the skin of an eggplant fruit, or of pieces red like rouge, green like onion-leaves and kingfisher's plumage, and purple like ink black, these three colours being pure and not in the slightest degree changed during the firing. Pieces which have one or two numbers on the bottom as a trade mark, and are of a colour resembling pig's liver, since the red, ch'ing and green colours got mixed together like saliva hanging down through not being sufficiently fired, are not to be distinguished as different kinds. For, such names as "mucus," or "pig's liver," which are given to this class of porcelain, have been invented for fun's sake. Among these porcelains, those which have bottoms like the flower-pots in which sword-grass is grown, are considered the most excellent; the others, viz., those which have bottoms like ton-shaped censers, Ho-fang jugs or Kuan-tsü, are all of a yellowish, sandy paste, for which reason they are not good in appearance; they have been made in recent years at I-hsing, the paste consisting of a gritty clay, though the enamel somewhat resembles the better class article; but they do not stand wear and tear.'
Refering to the simile of kingfisher's plumage, Dr. Hirth says:—
To a European eye the tints appearing in old Chün-yao porcelains, besides the reddish colours, are perhaps rather bluish than greenish; but it should be considered that, by the admixture of white and red materials, the exact description must have been very difficult to a Chinese writer. Probably no better metaphor could have been found for the colour described than the plumage of the parrot (ying-ko-lü), if we think of the red-tailed bird of a greyish plumage, which is so superior to all other varieties for its linguistic faculties.
Referring to the numbers on the bottom, he says:—
Julien (p. 74) translates: 'Les vases qui portaient au dessous du pied les charactères numériques, i., (un), eul (deux);' eitel (China Rev., vol. x., p. 311): 'Specimens bearing one or two numerical characters at the bottom.' I have, against my grammatical instinct, adopted the second rendering, since I have seen a Sung specimen bearing the number wu (five) as a trade mark. The description given by Fortune (A Residence among the Chinese, London, 1857, p. 86) of 'the most ancient examples of porcelain' apparently refers to this class of Chün-yao.
Referring to the caution that pieces showing mixed colours, owing to being imperfectly fired, should not be distinguished as different kinds, he says:—
As is done in Julien's translation (pp. 74 and 75), where seven classes are named, viz., (1) Mei-tzu-ch'ing or green or blue, like plums'; (2) Chia-pi-tzu or 'purple brown, like the egg-plant fruit' (see above); (3) Hai-tang-hung or 'red, like the Japanese pear'; (4) Chu-kan or 'pig's liver' (see above); (5) Lo fei or 'mule's lungs'; (6) Pi-ti or 'mucus' (see above); and (7) T'ien-lan or 'sky blue.' The Ch'ing-pi-tsang says: 'Of Chün-chou porcelains the best quality consists of pieces that are red like rouge; the second quality is green (ch'ing) like onion leaves and kingfisher's plumage, and brown or purple like ink. Pieces that are of a pure colour and contain one or two numbers as marks on the bottom, are superior; pieces that show mixed colours are in no demand.'
Dr. Bushell corrects a portion of the above renderings. In his review of Dr. Hirth's pamphlet, he writes: —"Dr. Hirth translates—'Among these porcelains, those which have bottoms like the flower-pots in which sword-grass is grown, are considered the most excellent; the others, viz., those which have bottoms like ton-shaped censers, Ho-fang jugs, or Kuan-tsu,' &c. I would render it, 'Among these porcelains the flower-pots and saucers for growing sword-grass are the most beautiful; the others, viz., the barrel-seats, censers and boxes, square vases and jars with covers,' &c. These things are all well known to the collector of this ware who will give hundreds of taels for a thick saucer, with a number engraved beneath as a mark, if it be of rich 'aubergine' colour. Censer and box always stand together on a Chinese table, the one to hold the incense or chips of sandal-wood burnt in the other." Julien renders the same passage thus:—"Parmi les porcelaines de cette manufacture on regarde comme excessivement beaux les plats sous le pied desquels on a peint un glaïeul." Hence arose a legend repeated by all writers on Chinese keramics from Jacquemart to du Sartel, that a bunch of sword-grass was painted on the bottom of choice specimens of Chün-yao. Messrs. Hirth and Bushell have disposed of this phantasy. The only marks on Chün-yao ware are deeply incised numerals.
The least known among the productions of the Sung is the Chien-yao, manufactured at Chien-yang, in the province of Fuhkien. The ware owed its character to the demand of tea-drinkers. Under the Tang dynasty (618-907), tea became an article of common consumption in China, and its popularity thenceforth increased so rapidly that a subsequent exponent of its reputation under the Sung rulers (960-1279) ascribed to it seven incomparable properties; namely, assuaging thirst, promoting digestion, clearing the throat, dispelling drowsiness, stimulating the kidneys, raising the spirits, and relieving fatigue. Chinese society lived a life too colourless and unpoetical to suggest anything like the graceful, idealistic philosophy of the Japanese cha no yu. But Chinese tea-drinkers soon formed a clear conception of the qualities a tea-bowl should possess in order to render the beverage as grateful as possible both to eye and palate. These qualities the Chien-yao exhibited in the highest degree. Thick enough to prevent the tea from cooling rapidly, its pâte was of such a nature as not to convey the heat of the beverage to the drinker's hand or lips, while its glaze not only offered a pleasant contrast to the bright green of the powdered tea, but was also admirable for its own sake. In truth, the glaze of the Chien-yao deserves great praise. On a ground of mirror-black are seen shifting tints of purple and blue; reflections of deep green, like the glassy colour of the raven's wing; lines of soft silver, regular as hair; and sometimes, in specimens of later date, the decoration takes the form of conventional Phoenixes, butterflies, maple-leaves, and so forth, in golden brown of the most satisfying richness and beauty. All these designs and tints possess the same property as that described in the case of spotted céladon—they seem to float in the glaze. In short, the Chien-yao, though its pâte remained always a rather coarse stone-ware, must be ranked, for the sake of its glaze, as a triumph of keramic skill. The most dexterous workmen of later times failed to imitate it. During the past five centuries, cups of this ware have been almost indispensable to the Japanese chajin. Before the nation turned, fourteen years ago, from its life of luxurious refinement, a single specimen of the best varieties commanded a price of from fifteen hundred to two thousand dollars.
In the Tao-lu it is stated that the choicest specimens of Chien-yao were generally in the form of bowls with narrow bases and wide mouths. Those in which the black glaze was spotted with "yellowish pearls," technically compared in colour to the fur of a hare, are especially lauded. Examples certainly exist in Chinese collections, but the ware seems to be virtually unknown to the ordinary experts of the Middle Kingdom, and is perhaps more difficult to find there than any of the products of the Sung kilns. In Japan, on the contrary, it has always been so much prized and so carefully preserved as to be familiar to connoisseurs and generally present in good collections. During the period of art decay and social confusion that immediately followed the fall of feudalism, a few pieces found their way into the market, but the opportunity thus offered to collectors did not long continue.
A point worthy of note with respect to the Chien-yao is that it was one of the very few esteemed wares of ancient times which the potters of Ching-tê-chên do not appear to have imitated either in the Ming or Tsing dynasties. To what circumstance this distinction is attributable, it is difficult to surmise. The Tao-lu shows that the Chien-yang factory was in a flourishing condition at the beginning of the Yuan dynasty (1260), but of its subsequent fate nothing is known except that it had ceased to produce ware of the above type before the end of the fourteenth century.
The Chien-yao presents two varieties of pâte. Both are stone-ware, but while the one is dark and coarse, with a dull timbre, the other is of somewhat lighter colour, tolerably close in texture, and almost as hard as porcelain. The former should properly be distinguished as U-ni-yao, or "raven-clay ware." Manufactured in the same district of Chien-ning-fu, in Fuhkien province, it was nevertheless a product greatly inferior to the finer varieties of Chien-yao. The clays for the two were taken, of course, from different quarries. Many pieces of U-ni-yao were céladons. The Tao-lo says that by some connoisseurs they were placed in the same rank with the wares of Lung-chuan, Chun and Chang, while by others they were relegated to almost the lowest rank among the products of the time. The reader may be warned here against confounding the Chien-yao of the Sung and Yuan dynasties with a ware of the same name but wholly different nature manufactured during the Ming dynasty (vide Ming Chien-yao).