China: Its History, Arts, and Literature/Volume 1/Chapter 6
Chapter VI
PORCELAIN DECORATED UNDER THE GLAZE
THE history of Chinese keramics under the Sui, Tang, Sung, and Yuan dynasties—a period of eight centuries (581—1367)—indicates that to produce a single-coloured or white glaze was the potter's first aim. He understood and largely practised the device of ornamenting the surface of a piece with designs incised or in relief, to which the comparative thickness or thinness of the superincumbent glaze imparted an appearance of dark or light colour. But the glaze was everything. On its lustre, solidity, and tone the whole beauty of the specimen depended. To make it perfectly colourless and translucid, a mere agent for preserving and revealing decoration beneath, did not find a place among his methods, and, indeed, was not likely to find a place in the case of most of his pâtes. The dense, grey clay of the old céladons and their contemporary monochromes could scarcely serve a better purpose than that of carrying a rich, opaque or semi-opaque glaze, brilliant and yet restful. It has been seen that the manufacture of finer pâtes was within his competence. The Ting-yao proves this. Its tender,
fine and pure biscuit indicated a high degree of 
Vase (Copied from Ancient Bronze of Ju-Yao Céladon).
Sung dynasty. (Collection of General Huang, who is said to have paid 150,000 cash for it. Catalogue of H'siang.) Height, 6½ inches. (See page 36.)
needed to subordinate glaze to decoration. When and how this impulse was imparted it is impossible to say precisely. The meagre evidence available points, however, to the close of the Sung era (circa 1200) as the probable date of the new departure. Chinese records, so far as they have hitherto been explored, are silent on the subject. H'siang, whose "Illustrated Catalogue" was compiled during the second half of the sixteenth century, describes eighty-two specimens of the wares most valued by connoisseurs at that period. Forty-three of these specimens are pieces manufactured during the Sung and Yuan dynasties. Among them there is not even one example of decoration with blue under the glaze. The first specimen of this sort mentioned by H'siang—a virtuoso whose reputation as a connoisseur obtained for him complimentary notice in the great Bibliographical Cyclopedia of Chien-lung (1736—1795)—belongs to the reign of the Ming Emperor Hsuan-tê (1426—1435). Even though it stood alone, such an item of evidence would suffice to show that, if porcelain decorated with blue under the glaze was manufactured before the Ming dynasty (1368), it did not succeed in establishing a title to be ranked among objets d'art. And when to the negative information afforded by H'siang's Catalogue is added the fact that the blue-and-white of the Sung and Yuan dynasties is absolutely ignored by other records, it seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that this branch of the art was still in a tentative and elementary condition.
Here the Japanese come to the student's aid. These enigmatical people, side by side with keen appreciation of the graceful and the beautiful, developed, under the influence of the Cha no Yu cult, an antiquarian taste of the most severe description. The genuine Chajin aspired to simplicity before everything. The closer he could get to nature, the more faithfully was he obeying the tenets of his philosophy. Could he have dispensed altogether with manufactured utensils without outraging refinement, he would doubtless have made the attempt. His austerity did not, however, carry him quite so far. He was content to use the closest procurable representatives of nascent art, and in these his sympathetic eye detected excellences which were doubtless present, to some extent, since the efforts of all successful pioneers show traces of original genius. To this propensity is due the preservation of many specimens which would never have survived for their own sakes. Among them are examples of blue-and-white ware dating from the Sung period. The epoch is fixed, not alone by tradition, but also by inscriptions which the specimens carry. Asa general rule year-marks are quite untrustworthy for determining the date of a keramic specimen. What they do show, however, in the case of imitators so faithful as the Chinese, is that ware of a certain description was manufactured at a certain epoch. A Chinese potter would scarcely resort to the manifest fraud of producing an intrinsically worthless specimen of blue-and-white merely for the sake of marking it with the date of a period when nothing of the kind had existed. Such deceptions might have been practised at the factories of Chien-lung, or even of Kang-hsi, to supply the demand of Japanese collectors. But some of the specimens here referred to are said to have come to Japan as long ago as the thirteenth century, or fully two hundred years before the dilettanteism from which they subsequently derived their value had begun to be largely developed. Thus, from every point of view, there is reason to believe that they are genuine representatives of what the Sung and Yuan potters were able to accomplish in the way of decorating with blue under the glaze. It was not a notable accomplishment, either techni-cally or artistically. The earlier pieces are known in Japan as Tai-so-yaki, "Tai-so" being the Japanese method of pronouncing the ideographs "Ta-Sung" (the great Sung dynasty). They are stone-ware; the pâte hard, fine, and well manipulated, but genererally too thick and solid to suggest any great skill of manufacture. The designs are bold, but roughly executed, and the blue is evidently of very inferior quality, its tone being muddy and unsatisfactory. Working with such a pigment, the keramists of those early days had little to encourage elaborate or artistic effort. They seem also to have been more or less inexperienced or careless in the management of white, translucid glazes; for the surface of their pieces, especially at salient points, is often disfigured by defects doubtless due originally to blisters in the glaze. Blemishes of this peculiar nature are regarded as marks of authenticity by the Japanese, who call them muhsi-kui, or "insect erosions;" a term that aptly describes their appearance. Not until the latter days of the Yuan dynasty—i.e. the beginning of the fourteenth century—does this ware begin to show signs of skilled manufacture. The pâte then ceases to be stone-ware and becomes porcelain; the glaze is whiter and more even; and the blue has a much purer, though still inferior, tone. To this period may probably be assigned the first manufacture of hard-paste translucid porcelain in China. It is impossible, of course, to speak with absolute certainty on such a point. Were there question of a new discovery, such as that made by John Schnorr at Ane, or by Madame Darnet at St. Yrieix, it might be easy to be more explicit. But the story deals, rather, with what seems to have been a gradual transition. The records of Ching-tê-chên show very plainly that, from the time when the potter's industry first began to flourish there (circ. 580 A.D.), kaolin, or porcelain earth, was used at the factories. Indeed it was the presence of feldspathic rock that lent the locality its importance as a keramic centre. In order to manufacture fine porcelain, however, it was necessary to mix other clays with this petrosilex, and the nature of the ware produced would have varied, of course, with the proportions in which the ingredients were combined. So long as thick lustrous glazes constituted the chief decoration of a piece, a solid pâte was probably found to possess special advantage. But when colourless, translucid glaze came to be required, as in the case of blue-and-white ware, the quality of the body of a vase naturally underwent some change. The progress of the two processes—decoration with blue under the glaze and the manufacture of a true hard-paste porcelain biscuit—may therefore be said to have occurred simultaneously during the same epoch—the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries—and to have attained appreciable development, though by no means yet reaching a point of culmination, at the close of the Yuan dynasty.
Among the keramic products of China, none, perhaps, has greater interest or importance for foreign collectors than "blue-and-white." It deserves specially careful notice. Summing up what has already been stated, the result is that, as an artistic product, the manufacture commenced under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). The earliest examples, dating from the Sung and Yuan eras, are inferior in respect of pâte and colour alike. Disfigured by discontinuities or blisters in the glaze, clumsily finished, rudely painted, the blue of impure tone without either brilliancy or depth, and the decorative designs formal if not archaic—the painter’s range of conception not extending beyond scroll patterns, clumsy figure-subjects, and diapers—the ware was evidently destined for common purposes of household life. As an object of art it could not possibly rank with the Ting-yao, the Kuan-yao, the Chün-yao, the Yuan-tsü, or any of their celebrated contemporaries. The potter, in short, saw no inducement to expend strength upon a manufacture that gave so little promise. What chiefly deterred him is said by some authorities to have been the want of a good pigment. They suppose that the cobalt used by the first manufacturers of blue-and-white was of native origin, and that, though it was not incapable of producing a rich colour, the difficulty of refining it exceeded the skill of the time. According to this theory, the arrival of a purer mineral from abroad, in the form of tribute, at the beginning of the fifteenth century, first directed really expert attention to decoration with blue under the glaze. But the "Annals of the Sung Dynasty," quoted by Dr. Bushell, speak of the "Arabs bringing to China, in the tenth century, among other presents for the emperor, pieces of cobalt blue (Wu-ming-yi), which had long before this time been employed in Western Asia in the decoration of pottery." There is no apparent reason to suppose that the nature of this "Mohammedan blue" (Hui-ching), as it was called, had undergone any change between the tenth and the fifteenth centuries. A more reasonable hypothesis is that improved methods of treating it were among the scientific and technical developments for which the Ming epoch was remarkable. Dr. Bushell has the following note on the subject:—
The blue colour used for painting under the glaze was originally brought from one of the Mohammedan countries on the West of China as tribute, according to the Official Description of the Province of Kiangsi. In the reign of Hsuan-té (1426-1435) it was called Su-ni-po blue, and it is recorded that the supply of it faded before the reign of Chéng-hua (1465-1487). In other books of the period it is called Su-ma-li, or Su-ma-ni, blue. In the reign of Chia-ching (1522-1567) Mohammedan blue was again obtained by a eunuch governing the province of Yunnan, and the blue-and-white of this reign is still celebrated for its brilliant colour. The supply again ran short towards the end of this reign, and an inferior blue was produced from the incineration of Wu-ming-yi, a cobaltiferous ore of manganese found in different parts of China. The Mohammedan blue was broken up with the hammer, and the pieces which showed on fracture vermilion spots were picked out as the first-class blue, those with silver stars being used for the medium colour, and from each sixteen ounces of these pieces three ounces remained after the incineration in a closed vessel. The remaining fragments were thrown into water, impurities drawn off by magnetic iron ore, and the residue yielded another thirtieth part by weight of the true blue. If this blue were employed alone the colour was apt to spread, and it was necessary to add a proportion of native blue, not too much or the colour would be dull and heavy. The "first-class blue" was a mixture of ten parts of the former with one of the latter; the average blue of about equal parts, and this came out of the kiln with each stroke of the brush clearly defined. The first-class blue mixed with much water and spread over the surface in mass, gave a pure and transparently bright tint.
The Tao-lu states that ten ounces of the imported blue in its unrefined state cost three dollars. Thus the cost after refinement was more than a dollar and a half per ounce. A special class of experts devoted themselves to judging its quality. To the choicest grade they gave the fanciful epithet "blue of the head of Buddha." Nothing is known as to the exact composition of this Mohammedan blue. The native Chinese mineral, with which the potters of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries produced beautiful results, has been analysed by M. Salvétat. His result is as follows:—
| Silica | 37.46 | Lime | 0.60 |
| Oxide of Copper | 0.44 | Magnesia | Trace |
| Alumina | 4.75 | Arsenious Acid | Trace |
| Oxide of Cobalt | 5.50 | Oxide of Nickel, Sulphur, &c. | Traces |
| Oxide of Manganese | 27.50 | ||
| Oxide of Iron | 1.65 | Moisture | 20.00 |
With the accession of the Ming dynasty (1368), the golden period of Chinese keramics may be said to have commenced. The first sovereign of the dynasty was Hung-wu, who reigned from 1368 to 1399. In the second year of his reign a special factory at Ching-tê-chên was appointed to supply the Court. Its products were named Kuan-yao, or Kuan-tsü. This name—Imperial Ware—was thenceforth applied to several varieties of choice keramic manufactures, which the connoisseur will, of course, be careful to distinguish from the original Kuan-yao of the Sung dynasty. At this time, also, the custom of using marks to indicate the epoch of manufacture came into general vogue. It will be remembered that the custom originated three centuries previously, in the reign of the Emperor Chin-tsong. Genuine specimens of ware bearing the Ching-tê or other Sung marks are, of course, virtually unprocurable. The marks are found, however, on imitations manufactured at Ching-tê-chên by comparatively modern potters. The same is true of Ming year-marks. Collectors should hold to the general rule that such marks are untrustworthy. Many forgeries exist for one honest mark. Thus, although various marks will henceforth be mentioned in connection with blue-and-white ware, the reader will understand that they are not quoted as true indications. In blue-and-white porcelain the connoisseur has to look first to the nature and quality of the pâte; next to the purity and brilliancy of the blue decoration; thirdly, to the manner in which the design is executed, and fourthly to the texture and colour of the glaze. Thus guided, he can usually form an idea approximating more or less closely to the truth, and is then enabled to decide whether the year-mark may be taken as a final indication. With respect to the four points here enumerated, verbal descriptions cannot be wholly satisfactory. Features permitting such explanation will, however, be carefully noted in their proper place.
The blue-and-white of the Hung-wu era (1368-1399) was still an inferior product. It is not mentioned at all in the "History of Ching-tê-chên Keramics," unless the jars there spoken of as ornamented with dragons, belong to this category. From insignificant specimens preserved in Japan—none are known to exist in China—it would appear that the pâte of the blue-and-white Hung-yao was dense and heavy; that the glaze was of medium lustre, permeated by a bluish tinge, and that the colour of the decoration, though superior to that of the Yuan and Sung wares, altogether lacked the brilliancy and depth of subsequent manufactures. But in truth the student possesses little knowledge about the ware. It was evidently unworthy to be mentioned in written records or remembered in tradition. The year-mark is Hung-wu-nien-chi.
The next period calling for attention is that of Yung-lo (1403-1425). Remarkable for great progress in the technical processes of porcelain manufacture, it did not apparently contribute much to the art of decoration with blue sous-couverte. Premising that very scanty materials exist for forming an opinion, it may be asserted that the blue of the Yung-lo epoch is somewhat clearer and more brilliant than that of the preceding reign; that the overlying glaze is particularly lustrous and of velvet-like texture; and that the pâte is close-grained, of fine timbre, and lighter than that of Hung-wu pieces. The "History of Ching-tê-chên Keramics" speaks of Yung-lo cups decorated with flowers in blue of a very deep colour, and says that they were refined and artistic. Bowls of Yung-lo blue-and-white, with landscapes or figure subjects on one side and a mass of ideographs on the other, are prized by Japanese virtuosi, who call them "Seki-heki," that being the Japanese name of the sonnet generally represented by the ideographs. Remembering the reverence in which writing has always been held by the Chinese, and considering the labour bestowed on the decoration of these bowls as well as the care with which the paste and glaze are manipulated, it seems reasonable to class them among representative specimens of blue-and-white of their period. If this conclusion be correct, the qualities of the ware did not yet entitle it to high rank among keramic productions. The year-mark of the period is Yung-lo mien-chi, i.e. manufactured in the Yung-lo period; but the ideographs are usually written in a more archaic form.
The Hsuan-tê era (1426-1436) is in many respects the most remarkable period of the Ming dynasty. The blue-and-white porcelain of this date was the first ware of the kind that really deserved to rank among beautiful and artistic productions. In the quality of the porcelain itself a special change is observable. Now for the first time blue decoration was successfully applied to soft-paste porcelain. The Yung-lo potters were little, if at all, less skilled than those of the next reign in the manipulation of their materials. But the idea does not appear to have occurred to them that blue decoration sous couverte might be applied to ware of the Ting-yao type; that is to say, ware having a soft pâte. By the term "soft pâte" the reader must not understand an artificial porcelain mass like that originally used by the potters of Sèvres. The soft pâte of the Chinese keramist was distinguished from hard porcelain biscuit simply in having a much greater admixture of argillaceous matter. It was, in fact, semi-porcelain, made, however, so thin and of such thoroughly refined materials as to be often translucid. As to the composition of the soft pâte of the Sung Ting-- yao and its successors, tradition says nothing, and no analysis has been made in modern times. But the soft pâte of the Hsuan-tê blue-and-white ware is said to have been obtained by adding to porcelain-stone clay taken from the bed of the river at Ching-tê-chên. The Tao-lu, speaking of the vases manufactured at the imperial kilns during this epoch, says that they were made with "red, plastic clay;" that their "biscuit was like cinnabar," and that "all the materials employed were of the finest quality." M. Salvétat was led by this description to conjecture that the author of the Tao-lu referred to fine stone-ware of the Grès de Flandre class. Such was not the case, however. The Hsuan-yao is the type of a large number of porcelains manufactured continuously by Chinese keramists from 1426 to 1810, and regarded by the connoisseurs of the Middle Kingdom as the choicest and most valuable ware of their kind (blue-and-white). Its distinctive features are great thinness and lightness of pâte—though many beautiful specimens lack these special qualities—a peculiar crackled glaze, differing essentially from all other glazes run over blue decoration, and a waxy white ground, the snow-like purity of which contrasts exquisitely with the colour of the decoration. The glaze being perfectly translucid, it is evident that the blue decoration cannot have been applied directly to the reddish brown biscuit. The latter had to be previously covered with some white opaque substance, on the preparation and application of which much of the specimen's beauty depended. Possibly steatite was employed for the purpose. M. d'Entrecolles speaks as follows of this mineral:—
The potters conceived the idea of employing this stone instead of kaolin. It is named Hwah (soapy) because it is unctuous and in some degree resembles soap. Porcelain made with steatite is rare and much dearer than the other. It has an extremely fine grain, and for purposes of painting it is to ordinary porcelain pretty much what vellum is to paper. Moreover, its lightness appears astonishing to a hand accustomed to other porcelains. It is also much more fragile than common ware, and there is difficulty in obtaining the right temperature in baking it. Some experts do not use steatite for the porcelain mass. They content themselves with making a solution of it into which they plunge the ware when the latter is dry, in order that the body of the piece may become coated with the mineral before receiving the decoration and the glaze. A certain degree of beauty is thus acquired.
The conspicuous fault of a vast majority of blue-and-white porcelains is that the body of the piece has a watery, bluish tint, offering a weak and unsatisfactory contrast to the colour of the decoration. But in the ware now discussed the pure white of the wax-like covering applied to the pâte constitutes an inimitable field for the blue decoration, which stands out with dazzling brilliancy and distinctness and is yet charmingly soft. The manufacture of such ware involved much labour. The pâte having been prepared with great care and worked down to almost wafer-like thinness, had to be sun-dried until it became tough enough to handle. It was then dipped in a solution of kaolin or steatite, and set once more to dry. Either of these drying processes might have been easily accomplished in the kiln. But the Chinese potter did not stove his pieces before applying the decoration sous couverte and the glaze. He preferred to take the trouble of drying them for months, sometimes even for a year, until they acquired sufficient consistency to be manipulated. This seemingly superfluous labour was well repaid by the ultimate appearance of the glaze, differing palpably as it did from the comparatively weak, lustreless covering obtained by the easier process of application after preliminary stoving. A second drying was of course necessary after the coating of steatite or kaolin had been given. The decorative design was then traced in cobalt, and finally the whole was covered with perfectly colourless, translucid glaze, which, expanding more slowly than the body of the piece under the influence of heat, became covered with a net-work of crackle that imparted an aspect of indescribable softness. From this crackle the ware derives the name Kai-pien, or open edges, by which it is known in China. By some connoisseurs it is also called Wei-tsü, a term possessing no distinctive significance, as its literal meaning is simply "baked porcelain." It is the "blue-and-white egg-shell" of Western collectors, who, however, apply the same appellation to another and not less remarkable species of ware similarly decorated, namely, hard porcelain as thin as paper, manufactured in the ordinary manner and without crackle.
Among all the blue-and-white wares of the Ming epoch, that of the Hsuan-tê reign ranks highest in China. But its superiority to some of the later products of the same dynasty is not marked. The only appreciable difference lies in the quality of the blue, concerning which it is not possible to give any written description other than that it is deep, brilliant, and clear, and that it seems to be actually inlaid in the pâte, so intimately are the two associated. Undoubtedly the blue of this era offered a striking contrast to anything that went before. Why such should have been the case it is not easy to determine. Looking at the history of the time, it will perhaps be right to refer the general art progress that took place during Hsuan-tê's reign to the peaceful state of the empire. The two first Ming sovereigns were at war throughout nearly the whole of their reigns. Not until the closing year of Yung-lo's life can the authority of the dynasty be said to have been firmly established and the tranquillity of the country assured. The third emperor reigned only a few months and was succeeded by Hsuan-tê, who happily found leisure to devote attention to peaceful pursuits. He received envoys from remote States, as Malacca and Bengal, and since it is known that the mineral used for painting porcelain in blue under the glaze was originally brought as tribute from one of the Mohammedan countries to the west of the Middle Kingdom, there may be truth in the hypothesis advanced by some that the first plentiful supply of it reached Ching-tê-chên at the beginning of Hsuan-tê's reign. What is more probable, however, and less at variance with history, is that the manner of employing this blue for painting designs on porcelain was not fully understood by earlier experts.
Of course the Kai-pien-yao was not the only kind of blue-and-white ware manufactured during the Hsuan-tê era. On the contrary, judging from the great rarity of surviving specimens, despite the high value set upon them from the moment of their production to the present day, the inference is that but a limited supply of it was turned out. Much commoner and more plentifully manufactured was ordinary hard-paste porcelain decorated in the same manner. This, too, was distinguished by the grand tone of the blue. Being more durable, it ought to have survived in larger quantities than the Kai-pien-yao, but the far greater esteem in which the latter was always held doubtless gave it an advantage in this respect. Certain it is that examples of Hsuan-tê hard-paste blue-and-white are not less scarce than specimens of Kai-pien-yao dating from the same period.
As to the decorative subjects employed at this early era, it is difficult to give a comprehensive description. Floral designs, dragons among clouds, conventional landscapes, grasshoppers, figures, scroll-patterns, and diapers were all in vogue. Speaking generally, it may be asserted that a grave defect of Chinese decoration, whether under or over the glaze, is its mechanical character. Except in the case of very choice pieces, the same subject was the work of several artists. One man traced or painted flowers only; another confined himself to mountains; a third depicted nothing but trees; a fourth made a study of birds alone; a fifth of fishes, and so on. Even in painting human figures, the hands and feet, the faces and the drapery were often undertaken by different decorators. The natural result of this piecemeal method of building up a picture was that the ensemble lacked force and originality. Seldom are there found on Chinese porcelain the charming and delicate sketches, often as redolent of life as they are faithful in detail, that impart such beauty and character to the master-pieces of Japanese keramists. Here again an important distinction is established between hard-paste and soft-paste blue-and-white. For while the former, in the vast majority of cases, unless its decoration be of purely conventional or geometrical type, is disfigured by an aspect of patch-work crudeness, the designs on the latter are invariably the work of one hand, and leave little to be desired in respect of conception or execution. Every stroke is firm and distinct, and not infrequently the motive is treated with boldness and fidelity that recall the genius of the Japanese keramist. There are exceptions of course, especially when the painter attempts to depict some mythical animal, as the Dog of Fo or a bushy-tailed tortoise. But the rule, as between the two classes of porcelain, may be accepted in the sense herein indicated. It also holds, though to a less marked extent, with regard to the second class of "egg-shell" blue-and-white porcelain. This is nothing more than hard-paste porcelain of exceeding thinness. Often it is scarcely thicker than a sheet of paper, and so translucid that there is difficulty in conceiving the existence of any pâte at all between the inner and outer coats of glaze. To obtain a pure, brilliant tone of blue in the decoration of such ware is quite beyond the capacity of any but the most skilled expert. The Chinaman, however, succeeded perfectly. Moreover, he was able to stove his cups and bowls on their inferior (and therefore narrow) rims without suffering them to shrivel or warp under the influence of the high temperature necessary to develop the colour of the blue—a feat demanding wonderfully skilled manipulation. These pieces, generally insignificant as to dimensions—tiny cups, rice-bowls, and so forth——are always decorated with minute care. In this respect they rank almost on an equal plane with the beautiful Kai-pzen-yao, though their inferiority from an artistic point of view can scarcely be questioned. Brilliant and pure as is the colour of their decoration, and skilfully executed as are their miniature designs, they lack the dazzling contrast shown by the Kai-pien-yao's snow-white waxy body and its deep but soft blue ornamentation.
In the "Illustrated Catalogue" of H’siang six specimens of Hsuan-tê blue-and-white ware are depicted, under the name of Ming Hsuan-yao. This method of distinguishing wares by the year-name of the period of their production came into general vogue among Chinese connoisseurs as far back as the fifteenth century, but the reader must understand that under the title H’suan-yao not blue-and-white porcelain alone but all the choice varieties of the reign are included. H’siang's specimens are small pieces—an ink-pallet, 3½ inches long; a miniature vase, 2 or 3 inches high; a jar in the form of a goose, 6 inches long; an elephant-shaped jar, 6 inches long; a tea cup, 2½ inches in diameter, and a lamp, 5 inches high and 4½ inches in diameter. The decorative designs on all these examples, the tea-cup excepted, are wholly subordinate to the shapes of the pieces. There is no attempt to convert the surface into a painter's canvas. The brilliant tone of the blue, the pure white "mutton-fat-like" colour of the body, and the caligraphic excellence of the year-mark—these are things which constitute the important "points" of the specimens. The subject on the tea-cup—a gnarled pine-tree, with orchids and fungus springing from the grass beneath—is eulogised as being "evidently from the pencil of a celebrated landscape painter." But the remaining designs are essentially of the formal, mechanical type, as becomes the pieces to which they are applied. Unfortunately the artist employed by H’siang to portray these specimens did not think it worth while to give representations of the under surfaces, showing the nature of the pâte. Neither are his reproductions so accurate as to convey an exact idea of the surface. Were it known certainly either that the pâte was reddish brown, or that the glaze was crackled, these examples could be confidently classed with the soft-paste variety. The descriptions in the text indicate pretty clearly, however, that they do belong to that category. Concerning the tea-cup, which is from the collection of H’siang himself, the author says that it was one of a set of four, purchased from a collector at Wu-hsing for ten taels. It will presently be seen that the value put upon such specimens increased largely in later years.
Among these six specimens there are two which H’siang describes as having millet-like elevations in the glaze. This feature, not without value in the eyes of Chinese connoisseurs, appears to have been produced by combined processes of insufflation and immersion. Glazing material of a certain consistency having been first blown over the biscuit through a tube covered with very thin gauze, and having been sun-dried for a time, the whole piece was afterwards covered with a thinner glaze by dipping. Such a strange and troublesome tour de force was only employed in exceptional cases and is not to be regarded as an essential mark of excellence. The resulting granulations, compared in China to millet seed, were known in Japan as mashihada, or pear's rind. At comparatively modern epochs they became larger, until finally the surface of the glaze assumed a lumpy appearance, more curious than beautiful. This criticism, however, must not be understood as applicable to specimens of earlier date than the end of the last century. The granulated glazes of the Ming and principal Tsing factories were both interesting and attractive. In the Tao-lu it is nevertheless stated that this Tsung-yen-yao, or ware à boutons d'Aralia, which is the Chinese term for strongly chagrined glaze, was classed among ordinary porcelains and did not rise to the dignity of a really choice production. It was, in fact, hard-paste porcelain.
Since Chinese connoisseurs place the Hsuan-tê era at the head of blue-and-white porcelain epochs, it might be expected that the names of some of its distinguished keramists would have been handed down to posterity. But one only is mentioned, an artist called Lo, whose specialty was the delineation of fights between grasshoppers. Fashionable folks of Lo's time are said to have amused themselves pitting these insects against each other.
The year-mark of the Hsuan-tê period is Hsuan-tê nien chi, "manufactured in the Hsuan-té" (era). Frequently in this, as in all the Ming periods, the year-mark was prefixed by the ideographs Ta-ming, signifying "Great Ming."
The three eras immediately following Hsuan-tê were Chang-tung, from 1436 to 1449; Chiang-tai, from 1450 to 1456, and Tien-shun, from 1457 to 1464. They produced nothing specially worthy of note, and their year-marks are rarely found upon keramic specimens. No reference is made in Chinese works to the manufactures of this interval of nearly thirty years, though the nine years (1426-1435) of Hsuan-tê's reign receive extended and enthusiastic notice. It is not easy to account for this silence or for the comparative absence of specimens bearing the cachet of any of the three reigns. That fine pieces were manufactured there can be little doubt, and it is known that the supply of choice Mohammedan blue did not fail. Probably the most reasonable conclusion is that the Hsuan-tê types being closely adhered to by keramists and recognised as standards of excellence by connoisseurs during the years immediately succeeding the celebrated era of their production, the works of those years failed to obtain distinctive recognition.
The next era, Chêng-hwa, which continued from 1465 to 1488, was in some respects even more remarkable than the Hsuan-tê era. The supply of imported Mohammedan blue is said to have failed, and the potters were obliged to content themselves with native mineral. But whatever pigment they employed, it is certain that many pieces of great brilliancy and beauty were produced. The decoration differs from that of the Hsuan-tê epoch in one important respect, namely, that whereas the latter conveys the impression of being engraved in the pâte, the former is of a more superficial character. Thus is furnished a suggestion as to the difference between the imported and the native mineral in the matter of behaviour during manufacture; a difference that may be independently gathered from the text of the records. The Mohammedan blue was capable of resisting the temperature of the open furnace; the Chêkiang blue could not be used except on porcelain protected by muffles. The result was that, in the case of the former, the designs became, as it were, wedded to the pâte, thus acquiring remarkable depth and softness. With regard to general technique, however, the Chêng-hwa blue-and-white ware is not at all inferior to that of Hsuan-tê. Some connoisseurs, indeed, give the palm to the former, and all agree that the artistic skill shown by the Chêng-hwa decorators was distinctly superior to that of their predecessors. The Tao-lu says of the Chêng-hwa-yao ware: "As for the blue employed, it was of ordinary quality. In so far as this point is concerned, the Chên-hwa ware fell far below the ware of Hsuan-tê. But the former surpassed all antecedent and subsequent productions in regard to painting and coloured enamels. Its merit consisted in the skill of the painters and the fineness of the colouring matters. The author is here speaking chiefly of porcelain decorated with vitrifiable enamels over the glaze, a class of production that does not belong to this section of the subject. But his verdict as to the pictorial skill of the Chéng-hwa decorators certainly embraces blue-and-white porcelain also. It will be understood, of course, that allusion is here made to Kai-pien-yao (soft-paste porcelain). In all eras this ware stands at the head of blue-and-white specimens.
Need it be said that genuine examples of soft-paste Hsuan-yao and Chêng-hwa yao are well-nigh unprocurable? Their Chinese possessors set an almost prohibitive value on them. In judging their authenticity, what the connoisseur has to examine first is the colour and nature of the pâte. It should be fine as pipe clay and of distinctly reddish brown tinge. Sometimes in Chêng-hwa specimens the colour of the biscuit shows through its covering, and imparts a pearly grey tinge to the surface of the piece. Soft and beautiful as is the effect of this transmitted tone, it scarcely ranks as high as the snowy wax-like white of the choicest Kai-pien. The decoration should always be finely and strongly executed, and the closer the blue approximates to the typical brilliancy and purity of the Mohammedan mineral, the higher the rank of the specimen. The glaze should be as smooth as velvet to the touch, and the crackle must not be so strong as to constitute a striking feature. No large examples of soft-paste blue-and-white Hsuan-yao or Chêng-hwa-yao are known to exist. The pieces depicted in H’siang's "Illustrated Catalogue" are of diminutive size, and the collector may safely regard them as typical.
Of the ordinary hard-paste blue-and-white Chêng-hwa porcelain, there is not much to be said. It has virtually no place in the Western collector’s field, for the only surviving specimens of it are a few plates, bowls, censers, and so forth. It presents, however, one interesting feature. In its decoration white designs on a blue ground are found; the fore-runners of the celebrated "Hawthorn Pattern," so much prized in Europe and America to-day. The style may have existed before, but there is no evidence of the fact. It makes its first known appearance on undoubtedly genuine specimens af Chêng-hwa porcelain. Not yet, indeed, had the idea been developed of the "Hawthorn Pattern" proper—that is to say, branches and blossoms of white plum ina blue field. What appears is a clouded blue ground with floral subjects, birds and so forth, in white. Very soon, however, the typical "Hawthorn" was produced, as Japanese evidence shows. Within forty years of the expiration of the Chêng-hwa era, the potteries at Ching-tê-chên were visited by a Japanese expert, Gorodayu Shonzui, the originator of porcelain manufacture in his country. In his day the "Hawthorn" design was certainly employed by Chinese decorators, for it figured conspicuously on his own pieces, though not as a principal motive.
The high reputation enjoyed by the Chêng-hwa ware led to its extensive imitation in later times. No mark, perhaps, has been more forged than that of Ta-Ming Chêng-hwa nien-chi. Even the potters of the Kanghsi era (1661-1722), whose productions were well worthy to stand on their own merits, did not hesitate to manufacture imitations of the celebrated Ming wares. Reproductions by such experts were little, if at all, inferior to their originals. But the case is different in the present modern times, when a hopelessly deteriorated art endeavours to conceal its palpable shortcomings behind the cachet of famous periods. It may be well, therefore, to warn collectors against the delusion that large vases, big bowls, and imposing jars which bear the Chêng-hwa mark, really date from that era, or reproduce the fine qualities of its manufactures. The rare examples of genuine early Ming blue-and-white hard-paste porcelain that come into the market, are small pieces, not at all likely to strike the eye of an ordinary connoisseur, and generally commanding prices out of apparent proportion to their merits. On the other hand, it is difficult to furnish any written data whereon to base an accurate estimate of the period of a hard-paste specimen. The pâte of the Chêng-hwa porcelain, like that of all the Ming wares, is hard, heavy, and close grained, and the timbre remarkably sharp and clear. Occasionally one finds clinging to the bases of bowls and plates, fragments of the sand with which the bottom of the oven was strewn before the stoving. This technical accident, although from its nature likely to occur in the case of inferior wares alone, is not uncommonly seen in pieces upon which great pains were evidently lavished. One peculiarity, which, though not confined to wares of the Chêng-hwa era, is perhaps more noticeable in them than in any other Chinese porcelains, is that within the circular base of the piece a number of hair lines radiate towards the centre, as though the glazing material had been laid on with a paint brush. Such, indeed, was probably the case. The base of a piece was always the last part which a Chinese potter finished. After the decoration and glaze had been applied to the body, the specimen was replaced on the wheel for the purpose of removing the superfluous clay which, adhering to the base, had hitherto served as a means of supporting the piece during the various processes of manufacture. The glazing of the base was then effected, and a brush would have been a convenient method of performing the operation. Why, however, evidences of such a process should be particularly visible in pieces manufactured during the first cycle of the Ming dynasty, and especially during the Chêng-hwa era, there is nothing to indicate, and perhaps it would be misleading to regard them as distinctive of such pieces, whatever some connoisseurs may allege.
The next year-period after Chêng-hwa was Hung-chih (1488-1506). It was not remarkable for blue-and-white porcelains. The supply of fine cobalt, from native and foreign sources alike, is said to have failed, and the manufacture of ware decorated with that mineral under the glaze consequently received a check. The mark of the era—Ta-Ming Hung-chih nien chi—is rarely found on porcelains of the class now under consideration.
The following period—Chêng-tê (1506-1522)—is more important. The Governor of Yunnan succeeded in procuring a fresh supply of the celebrated Mohammedan blue, and with it many beautiful porcelains were decorated. They are said to have been comparable with pieces of the Hsuan-tê and Chêng-hwa eras. Few of them, however, appear to have survived, and they certainly possessed no features to distinguish them above their immediate predecessors. It is mentioned in the Tao-lu that during this era the workmen of the imperial factory dishonestly sold pieces of the precious Mohammedan blue to private potters, and that rules of great strictness were adopted by the superintendent of the kilns to put an end to the practice. Judging by the value set upon the imported mineral and by the details recorded with reference to the failure or renewal of the supply, one is inclined to suppose that its colour must have been exceptionally beautiful. But there is a strong probability that the reputation it enjoyed was partly due to the inexperience of Chinese keramists. Certainly in later times, when, being thrown on their own resources, necessity stimulated their inventive faculties, they succeeded in so preparing and employing their native cobalt as to obtain a colour scarcely, if at all, inferior to the finest Hsuan-tê and Chêng-hwa blue. The mark of this period is Ta-Ming Chêng-tê nien chi. It is seldom found upon blue-and-white porcelain.
Perhaps it will be wise to remind the reader that, though no repeated reference to the distinction between soft-paste and hard-paste porcelain is here made in each account of the products of an era, the difference must never be lost sight of. Soft-paste blue-and-white ware stands always at the head of its class, and is separated by a long interval from every competitor.
The Chêng-tê period was followed by Chia-ching (1522-1567). The year-mark of this era—Ta-Ming Chia-ching mien chi—has been more abundantly forged than that of any other period except Chêng-hwa. From this fact alone may be inferred the quantity and reputation of the porcelains manufactured by the Chia-ching keramists. This was indeed the last era of the Ming dynasty when Mohammedan blue was procurable. Another noteworthy fact is that the supply of porcelain required for the use of the Court had now become enormous. Pieces were ordered not by dozens, but by hundreds. Scores of thousands of vases, bowls, and other utensils went up every year to Peking, and the resources of the factories at Ching-tê-chêng were subjected to an ever-increasing strain. Lists of the porcelains requisitioned by the Court during this and the two subsequent reigns are preserved in Chinese records and have been translated by Dr. Bushell. They are interesting not alone as a record of the nature of the pieces required for imperial use, but also as indicating the style of decoration then adopted. Dr. Bushell observes that "the designs are said to have been principally derived from brocaded satin and ancient embroidery," and that "most of the, subjects enumerated are still employed in ornamenting the imperial porcelain of the present day." The following is the portion of the list bearing upon our immediate subject, namely, porcelain decorated with blue under the glaze:—
Bowls decorated with dragons pursuing pearls; outside a balance weighing gold and playing children.
Bowls with sprays of flowers completely covering the ground inside and out.
Bowls with bamboo leaves and polyporus fungus, medallions containing dragons among clouds, dragons and phœnixes flying through flowers.
Bowls decorated, outside, with sea-waves and eight dragons emerging therefrom holding up the mystical diagrams; inside, with the three Taoist alchemists compounding the elixir vitæ.
Bowls with dragons, phœnixes, and other birds, outside; dragons among clouds, inside.
Bowls with four fishes, mackerel, carp, marbled perch and another, outside; birds flying in clouds, inside.
Tall Cups with celestial flowers under the inscription shou shan fu hai, "old as the hills, rich as the sea," two Taoist genii, inside.
Wine Cups with a pair of dragons among clouds, outside; dragons mounting upwards, inside.
Wine Cups with antique dragons, and, inside, storks flying in clouds.
Tall Cups with a pair of dragons; a pair of phœnixes, inside.
Tea Cups with playing boys and the flowers of the four seasons, peony, lotus, chrysanthemum, and plum, outside; dragons soaring from waves into clouds, within.
Tea Cups with dragons emerging from water; with lions, inside.
Wine Cups inscribed fu shou kang ning, "happiness, longevity, health and peace."
Tea Cups with a myriad flowers inside and out; also dragons grasping pearls, outside.
Cups with playing boys, outside; dragons among clouds, inside.
Tea Cups with dragon medallions and water caltrops; dragons among clouds, inside.
Cups with clouds and dragons, outside; floral medallions, inside.
Wine Jars (beakers) decorated with the emblems of longevity, the fir, bamboo, and plum.
Dishes (saucer shaped) with floral ground inside and out.
Dishes decorated inside and out with cranes flying through clouds.
Dishes with dragons coiling through Indian lotus flowers, outside; phœnixes flying through flowers, inside.
Dishes with fruit-bearing lotus, outside; floral medallions, inside.
Dishes with phœnixes flying through flowers, outside; ascending and descending dragons sporting, inside.
Jars with covers, with branched fungus supporting the eight precious emblems.
Jars with the eight Taoist immortals crossing the sea.
Jars with children playing masquerade revels.
Jars with peacocks and mutan peonies.
Jars with lions sporting with embroidered balls.
Jars with sprays of fairy flowers bearing the eight precious emblems.
Jars with floral ground, different kinds of fish and water plants.
Jars with the eight famous horses of the ancient Emperor Mu Wang.
Jars with waterfalls of Ssuch'üan province and flying lions.
Jars with waves and flames supporting the eight mystic diagrams.
Jars of octagonal form, the lobes filled with dragons in sea-waves.
Vases with fabulous lion and dragons.
Vases with branching fungus and the emblematic flowers of the four seasons.
Large round dishes with the flowers of the four seasons, outside; three rams as emblems of spring, sang yan k'ai t'ai, inside.
Dishes with nine dragons and flowers, outside; clouds and dragons above a border of sea-waves, inside.
Dishes with sea-waves enveloping flying lions and dragons holding up the characters for happiness and longevity.
Dishes with four Taoists, outside; cranes flying in clouds.
Dishes with clouds and dragons, outside; the eight Taoist immortals worshipping the god of longevity, inside.
Boxes with covers for holding fruit, with cranes and dragons flying among clouds.
Boxes with fabulous lions and dragons.
Boxes with dragons and phœnixes and a group of immortals worshipping the emblem of longevity.
Large Bowls for gold-fish, decorated with a pair of dragons.
Fish Bowls with dragons and clouds painted inside.
Large Wine Vessels of oval form decorated with sprays of lotus supporting the eight precious symbols and the eight Buddhist emblems, a balance weighing gold, and playing children.
Wine Vessels with sprays of lotus supporting the hundred forms of the longevity character.
This list unfortunately gives no indication of the nature of the wares enumerated. But it is safe to conclude that the greater part, if not the whole, were of the soft-paste (Kai-pien) variety. Porcelain supplied for use in the imperial palace would naturally be of the choicest kind.
The Tao-lu alludes in the following terms to the blue-and-white porcelain of the Chia-ching era:—"Vases in blue monochrome, manufactured with the Mohammedan mineral, were alone in favour, on account of the charming tone of their deep-coloured glaze. For the same reason vases painted with blue flowers of the Chia-ching era also enjoyed considerable reputation." The next two periods, Lung-ching (1567-1573) and Wan-li (1573-1620), may be conveniently classed together as to their blue-and-white porcelains. In the Tao-lu their wares are called Lung-wan-yao, as though no distinction existed between the two reigns. The important points to be noted with regard to these wares are that Mohammedan blue was no longer procurable and that the materials for manufacturing the porcelain mass had become in part exhausted and in part inferior. It is exceedingly probable, though the fact cannot be asserted with absolute confidence, that from 1570, approximately, until the end of the Ming dynasty (1644), very little soft-paste blue-and-white porcelain was manufactured at Ching-tê-chên. A principal ingredient for its biscuit was taken, as has been already stated, from the bed of the river on which the city stood, and this source of supply came to an end or ceased to be available during the Lung-ching era. On the other hand, large quantities of hard-paste porcelain were made. Numerous surviving examples may be seen. In all of them the biscuit is dense and heavy. Small pieces show excellent technique, but the larger are more or less clumsy and roughly finished. Their bottoms, instead of being turned on the wheel as was the case with preceding wares of the better class, generally exhibit marks of the knife used to remove superfluous clay. Often, too, the bottom is not depressed, but filled up level with the rim. In such specimens the year mark is written either on the outside of the piece—usually round the upper or lower edge—or in a rectangular space cut in the centre of the under surface and glazed. The type of blue-and-white Lung-wan-yao is essentially thick and solid, to which durable quality may doubtless be ascribed the fact that many examples survive. The quality of their blue decoration is characteristic. Its colour is deep and full, but distinctly tinged with purple. Seldom does it approach the brilliant pure tone of its celebrated predecessors. The body of the piece in a marked degree partakes also of that defect more or less common in all hard-paste blue-and-white porcelains: its white, pervaded by a tinge of blue, contrasts weakly with the colour of the decoration. With regard to the designs chosen by the potters, they became more elaborate in proportion as the ware forfeited its claims to consideration on account of brilliant colour and fine pâte.
About this period the use of red under the glaze began to be largely resorted to. Red and blue are the only colours thus employed by the Chinese potters, the red varying from brilliant vermilion to maroon and liver-colour. The date of their first appearance in combination is not easy to determine. Tradition and the evidence of existing specimens go to show that the innovation may probably be ascribed to the second half of the sixteenth century. The fashion is supposed by certain commentators to have owed something of its popularity to the failure of choice cobalt supplies from foreign sources and native mines alike, decoration in blue alone thus ceasing to be sufficiently attractive. But such a theory is not reconcilable with either the past or the subsequent history of the ware. Red by itself had already been used as a sub-glaze pigment during the Hsuan-tê era (1426-1436). Pieces of the choicest character were thus decorated. Five of them are figured in the "Illustrated Catalogue" of H’siang, who speaks of them with great enthusiasm. The designs were simple. Fish (carp) were the favourite motive, and after them the "peach of longevity," or agarics (a species of fungus). These last were sometimes combined with different forms of the ideograph (fu), signifying "good fortune." According to the Tao-lu, the number of fish, peaches, or agarics depicted was always three, and the number of ideographs five. But H’siang's illustrations show that though this may have been true with regard to the peaches, the rule did not invariably hold in the instance of the fishes. The ground of H’siang's specimens is said to have been "pure as driven snow," the fish "boldly outlined and red as fresh blood or vermilion, of a brilliant colour, dazzling the eye." Tiny cups or miniature bowls seem to have been the only examples surviving in H’siang's time. Of the cups decorated with peaches he adds that "only two or three are known to exist within the four seas." So much prized were choice examples of early wares decorated in this style that they received the name of Pao-ki, or precious vases. Vulgar tradition says that the grand tone of the red was obtained by mixing powdered rubies with the colouring matter. But that is evidently a myth. The substance employed was a silicate of copper. Chinese connoisseurs seem to have preferred Hsuan-tê specimens of this class to all others, but there is no reason to doubt that pieces scarcely if at all inferior were produced by subsequent Ming potters at any rate up to the end of the sixteenth century, and such was certainly the case at the factories of Kang-hsi, Yung-ching, and Chien-lung, during the present dynasty.
From the list of porcelains requisitioned for the palace during the Wan-li era, it appears that red 
Vermilion-Ink Box of Chêng-Hwa, Soft Paste Porcelain, Decorated with Blue Sous Couverte.
Height, 1½ inches. (See page 117.)
LIST OF PORCELAINS DECORATED WITH BLUE, OR RED, OR BLUE AND RED, SOUS COUVERTE, REQUISITIONED< FOR THE PALACE DURING THE ERA OF WAN LI (1573—1619).
Bowls decorated outside with lotus flowers, dragons and phœnixes in clouds, with interlacing sprays of Indian lotus and fairy flowers; inside with dragon medallions, a dragon band interrupted by the eight Buddhist emblems; on the border clouds with crested waves and sceptres, fragrant flowers, scroll waves, and plum blossom.
Bowls decorated outside with dragons and clouds, lotus flowers, fish, boys playing, the seal characters fu, shou, kang, ning, arabesques, sea monsters and lions playing with embroidered balls; inside with cranes and clouds, a single spray of lotus, lilies, sceptres and clouds; with the inscription Ta-Ming Wan-li nien chih.
Bowls, with, outside, dragon medallions, phœnixes, the eight precious symbols on brocaded ground, sea-waves, fu, lu, shou, the gods of happiness, rank, and longevity, and branching fungus; inside, a pair of dragons upholding longevity characters, jasmine flowers, and coloured phœnixes flying through the flowers of the four seasons.
Bowls with, outside, a pair of dragons, the eight immortals crossing the sea, boxes of the flowers of the four seasons; inside, full-faced dragons with seal longevity characters, a border of sceptres and hibiscus flowers, bamboo leaves and branching fungus.
Dishes with, outside, cloud dragons and phœnixes flying through flowers, interlacing sprays of fairy flowers, the fir, bamboo, and plum; inside, branches of the flowers of the four seasons, garlands of fruit in Mohammedan style, sceptres, the fir, bamboo, and plum, with a border of bamboo leaves and polyporus fungus.
Dishes with, outside, lotus flowers and dragons and phœnixes flying through flowers, the fir, bamboo, and plum, historical scenes with inscriptions in verse, playing boys; inside, a border of flower sprays and dragons, fragrant bamboo leaves and branching fungus, with dragons among clouds and flowers engraved under the glaze.
Dishes with, outside, medallions of fabulous animals and tigers, branching fungus, sceptres, fairy flowers, foreign pomegranates, and fragrant plants; inside, in the centre, dragons holding the characters yung, pao, wan, shou; on the border, phœnixes and fairy flowers, the inscription yung pao hung fu ch’i t’ien and playing boys.
Dishes with, outside, interlacing sprays of lotus with the eight precious emblems, dragons and phœnixes, fruit and flowers, the fir, bamboo, and plum, Sanscrit characters, separate sprays of flowers of the four seasons; inside, in the centre, dragons in the midst of flowers, on the border, flowers of the seasons, historical scenes, bamboo leaves and fungus, longevity inscriptions and peonies.
Saucer-shaped Plates with, outside, phœnixes flying through flowers, flowers, fruit and birds, longevity flower scrolls, floral brocades, flowering plants and animals, lotus leaves and dragons; inside, the eight precious symbols, antique dragons, celestial flowers supporting Sanscrit Buddhist inscriptions, dragons and phœnixes and historical scenes.
Cup with, outside, the peach tree of Taoist fable with antique longevity characters inscribed on the fruit, sprays of flowers of the four seasons, Sanscrit inscriptions; inside, clouds and cranes, pearls emitting flames, a pair of dragons and clouds engraved under the glaze, lotus flowers and fish in azure waves.
Wine Cups with, outside, dragons and phœnixes flying through flowers, the eight immortals worshipping the god of longevity, arabesques of fairy flowers; inside, dragon medallions, lotus flowers and fish, river plants supporting Sanscrit inscriptions.
Cups with, outside, clouds and dragons, jasmine flowers, birds, ladies and playing children, the eight Buddhist symbols on fungus branches; inside, grapes, sprays of flowers of the four seasons, Sanscrit dharani and longevity garlands.
Cups with, outside, dragons flying through flowers, historical scenes, nine blue monsters in red sea-waves; inside, sceptres and fragrant plants, plum flowers on wave ground, pheasants flying through flowers, red sea-waves with white crests.
Boxes with sceptres, clouds and dragons, dragons and phœnixes flying through flowers, the inscription fêng t’iao yü shun, t’ien hsia t’ai p’ing, "Propitious wind and favourable rain, peace throughout the empire," a head with hair dressed in four puffs inscribed yung pao ch’ang ch’un, "Ever preserving lasting spring!" the eight diagrams and symbols of yin and yang, figures of immortals with propitious inscriptions.
Boxes with strange monsters in attendance on the celestial dragon, sceptres, scroll brocades, floral ground patterns, hibiscus flowers on brocaded ground, musical instruments, flowers and fruit, birds, insects and flowers.
Boxes with propitious sentences on the sides; on the cover, dragons, the flowers of the seasons and historical scenes.
Wine Cups with, outside, flying lions in sea-waves, interlacing sprays of flowers of the four seasons, jasmine flowers, monsters and tigers, pomegranates and fungus; inside, hibiscus flowers and moutan peonies, sea-waves and fairy flowers.
Wine Bowls with interlacing sprays of golden lotus flowers supporting antique longevity characters.
Censers with the symbol of light and darkness and the eight diagrams, fungus branches, landscapes, clouds, and dragons.
Censers with, outside, lotus and fragrant flowers, with sceptres, dragons and clouds in relief, arabesques of fragrant flowers, dragons and fairy flowers executed in openwork, fungus branches and ancient coins.
Vases with dragons and phœnixes flying through flowers, flowering plants and animals, longevity fungus, brocades and pheasants, peonies, cranes in clouds, the eight diagrams and the hemp-leaved Indian lotus.
Vases with dragons and clouds above clumps of reeds, the fir, bamboo, and plum, ornamental designs in the form of the double gourd.
Vases with flowers, fruit and birds, fragrant plants and insects, historical scenes.
Slop Boxes with a pair of dragons among flowers and flocks of magpies.
Slop Boxes with clouds and dragons, arabesques of fragrant plants, historical scenes, flowers, fruit and branching fungus.
Vinegar Bottles with dragons in clouds and twining sprays of fairy flowers.
Chessboards with clouds and dragons.
Hanging Oil-Lamp with sea-waves, dragons and clouds, the flowers of the four seasons, golden chrysanthemums and hibiscus flowers.
Pricket Candlesticks with longevity inscriptions and emblems, the eight precious symbols, fairy flowers, sceptres and dragons in clouds.
Pricket Candlesticks with jewel mountains surrounded by sea-waves with dragons in clouds, medallions with boys plucking olea fragrans flowers, water-plants, lotus leaves and flowers.
Jars with nozzles for oil-wicks decorated with dragons and phœnixes flying through flowers of the four seasons.
Screens with brocaded ground, flowers, fruit and birds; the border, two dragons grasping pearls.
Pencil Barrels with brocaded ground, fairy flowers winding through clouds, branching fungus, the river pictures and writing of ancient story.
Pencil Handles with the eight precious symbols and dragon medallions.
Perfume Boxes with kylin and round ornament, winding sprays of fairy flowers, spiral scrolls, flowers and fruit, and eight Buddhist emblems, branching fungus, sea-waves and plum blossom.
Fan Boxes with dragons among clouds and spiral scroll ornament.
Pencil Rests with sea-waves executed in relief and three dragons in openwork.
Pallet Water Bottles with couchant dragons, jewel-bearing elephants and figure scenes.
Betel-nut Boxes with historical scenes, fragrant plants and lotus petals.
Hat Boxes with brocaded ground in round patterns and dragons coiling through the flowers of the four seasons.
Handkerchief Boxes with, outside, brocaded ground patterns, a pair of dragons supporting the inscription, "Ever preserving long life: tribute arriving from the four seas!"; historical scenes and the flowers of the season; inside, the fungus of longevity, the fir, bamboo, plum and orchids.
Garden Seats carved in openwork with dragons grasping pearls, flying dragons, lions, and sea-horses.
The mark of the Lung-ching era is Ta-Ming Lung-ching nien chi, and that of the Wan-li era, Ta-Ming Wan-li nien chi. The former occurs much more rarely than the latter, which is not only found on a tolerably numerous class of authentic specimens, but has also been extensively forged. Even at this time, when the markets of China have been so persistently and diligently exploited during a quarter of a century, the collector may still procure good examples of Wan-li blue-and-white. They are solid, and in many cases somewhat clumsy, but these defects are often relieved by brilliancy and decorative boldness, and choice specimens support comparison with the work of other eras. The glaze, too, is rich and lustrous, though lacking in purity of tone. From the factories of these eras—Lung-ching and Wan-li—came the comparatively small number of surviving Ming blue-and-white porcelains that attain any considerable dimensions. All the pieces that remain from preceding eras are small, the great majority not exceeding a few inches in height. This is absolutely true of soft-paste porcelain in respect of every reign in the dynasty. But in the Wan-li period, when four thousand flower-vases of various shapes and sizes and five thousand jars with covers appear in the imperial requisition at one time, the manufacturers of hard-paste porcelain seem to have frequently turned out pieces of imposing proportions. Vases of huge dimensions had, indeed, been manufactured at an earlier date. The Tao-lu states that special kilns existed at Ching-tê-chên for baking monster bowls, vases, and jars, as much as six feet high and having biscuit five inches thick. Some of these were decorated with floral designs, but the majority had dragons among clouds or waves, a subject repeated ad nauseam upon Chinese porcelains of all periods. They were stoved one or two at a time, and their baking occupied nine days. During the first seven days a slow fire was kept up, with the object of gradually expelling the moisture contained in the porcelain mass. Then for two days and two nights the furnace was raised to such a temperature that the porcelain became perfectly red and afterwards white. After this the fire was extinguished, and the aperture of the kiln having been sealed, ten days were allowed for the cooling process. Of these monster pieces some survive in Chinese collections, but few have found their way Westward. At what era their manufacture was first undertaken the records do not say, but it appears to have been continued down to the end of the Wan-li period (1619). Specimens of smaller but still imposing dimensions dating from the latter period are familiar to American and European collectors. They are, for the most part, fish-bowls and jars decorated with dragons; their pâte dense and of medium quality, their glaze lustrous but lacking purity, and the blue sous couverte of deep, purplish tone. It may, in short, be stated with regard to all the decorated porcelains dating from the final reigns of the Ming dynasty that they are distinguished by strength of colour. A brief acquaintance with genuine specimens enables the amateur to recognise these porcelains with tolerable certainty, for in no era, previous or subsequent, did the potter succeed in imparting to his sous-couverte blue a more distinctly encaustic character. It seems as though the colour were veritably burned into the pâte, and since the glaze is exceptionally solid and lustrous, the ultimate effect is one of softness and strength very admirably combined. For purposes of room decoration in Western houses the blue-and-white porcelains of Lung-ching and Wan-li possess special merits, since they adapt themselves to almost any situation. In order to bring out the noble glow and richness of Kang-hsi Hawthorns it is essential that they be placed in a full clear light: the more directly the sun strikes on them, the greater the brilliancy, glow, and warmth of their effect. The delicate richness of fine Kang-hsi and Yung-ching pieces, though not of the Hawthorn class, are scarcely less dependent on the light they receive. But the Lung-ching and Wan-li blues stand effectively in any nook or corner: even in a sombre atmosphere their decorative strength is not to be subdued.
In the Tao-lu the name of a celebrated keramist, Tsui, is recorded as having flourished in the second half of the sixteenth century. He is said to have excelled in imitating the blue-and-white soft-paste porcelain of the Hsuan-tê and Chêng-hwa eras. His fidelity as a copyist extended, of course, to the marks on his originals. Few as are the names of Chinese keramic experts remembered by posterity, fewer still are the instances of potters putting their own names on their works. Thus there is no hope of identifying the maker of a piece, and the fact that such and such great artists lived at such and such eras, possesses only historic interest.
With the close of the Wan-li era (1619), the production of Ming porcelains may be said to have terminated. The dynasty continued to occupy the throne until 1644, but its last two decades were so disturbed by struggles with the Tartars that the keramic industry was virtually deprived of imperial patronage, as well as of the custom of the upper classes. It is, however, mentioned in the Tao-lu that during these years of comparative inactivity there were produced, at the factories in Siao-nan street, Ching-tê-chên, various porcelains of small size. They were called "Siao-nan-yao," after the place of their manufacture, but sometimes also Hia-moh-yao, or "frog-sized wares," in allusion to their tiny, squat form. Their pâte had a yellow tinge; they were thin, but very solid, and in such of them as had blue decoration sous couverte, the designs were limited to flowers and leaves of the epidendrum (Chinese, Lan)—a plant that has always been highly esteemed by Chinese and Japanese—or to one or two circles round their outer rim. Specimens of this insignificant character do not redeem the general unproductiveness of the era as to blue-and-white porcelain.
The dynasty of Tsing Tartars, now ruling in China, was established at Peking in 1644. During the first reign, Shun-chih (1645–1661), no marked revival of art industries seems to have taken place. A certain quantity of blue-and-white hard-paste porcelain was, however, manufactured. Such specimens as survive are of fair quality, heavy, solid, somewhat rudely finished below, and generally having no depression in the under surface; characteristics that render them apt to be confounded with ware of the Wan-li era, especially as the tone of the blue decoration is virtually alike in both periods. The mark of the era is Ta-Tsin Shun-chih nien chi. It is seldom met with.
With the accession of the renowned Kang-hsi (1661–1722), second sovereign of the Tsing dynasty, the keramic art began once more to flourish. Under his enlightened and liberal rule the potteries at Ching-tê-chên developed a degree of excellence and prosperity without parallel. The era has been well called the golden age of Chinese keramics. Tang, an expert of remarkable ability, superintended the factories at Ching-tê-chên. Chinese records say that he held constant communion with the Genius of Pottery, and that the ware made under his direction was necessarily of super-excellent quality. His achievements almost justify this superstition from a Chinese point of view. With regard to the blue-and-white porcelains of his time, it will perhaps seem fit to speak first of the so-called "Hawthorn Pattern," so highly and not undeservedly popular among Western collectors. It need scarcely be premised that the term "Hawthorn" is a figment of Western fancy. The design referred to is really flowers of the plum in white on a blue ground, and porcelains thus decorated are known to Chinese connoisseurs and dealers as Mei-hwa-yao, or "plum-blossom ware." The idea of decoration in white on a blue ground had its origin long before the Kang-hsi era. It had been conceived as far back as the Chêng-hwa epoch (1465–1487), and may be of even greater antiquity. But there are no "Hawthorns," in the Western sense of the term, dating from the Ming dynasty. Previously to the Kang-hsi era the method had been merely accessory: it was used in parts only of the general design. From about the middle of the seventeenth century Chinese potters began to act upon the inspiration of entirely covering the surface of the biscuit (beneath the glaze) with rich, brilliant blue, among which flowering branches of plum, or, in less elaborate specimens, petals only of the blossom, were reserved, showing white and soft upon a ground of deep, glowing colour. Unquestionably this fashion of decoration is one of the most beautiful ever invented in China or anywhere else. It has every quality that should be possessed by ornamental porcelain—grace, softness, solidity, brilliancy, richness, and delicacy. Yet that Chinese connoisseurs did not rank it particularly high is proved by the nature of the specimens upon which the decoration is chiefly found; as, for example, ginger-pots, sugar-jars, and vases of comparatively mediocre quality. Neither the experts nor the virtuosi of the Middle Kingdom appreciated the charms of a ware for pieces of which every Western collector of taste searches with wise avidity. The colour and tone of the blue in the best Hawthorns of the Kang-hsi period show that a mineral was used in no respect inferior to the best Mohammedan pigment. An interesting fact is that the first Japanese potter—Gorodayu Go-shonzui—who manufactured translucid porcelain, having visited China in 1510 to study keramic processes, returned to Japan with a conviction that sprays and blossoms of the plum were eminently suitable for purposes of porcelain decoration. Among all the specimens attributed to him there is scarcely one into whose decorative design the plum does not enter in some form or other. It is possible that the grace and appropriateness of such a motive may have specially appealed to Japanese taste; but inasmuch as Japan sat humbly at China's feet in the matter of keramics in the sixteenth century, and as many considerations must have swayed Shonzui to faithful imitation of his teachers' models, it seems a reasonable inference that his free use of the meihwa reflected the tendency of Chinese potters also in his time. This part of the subject has so much interest for American and European collectors that the portions of the Tao-lu bearing on the subject may be appended in full:—
Porcelains decorated with blue sous couverte, whether round, square, or angular in shape, are distinguished by the epochs of their manufacture; as, for example, porcelains of Hsuan-tê, of Chêng-hwa, of Chia-ching, and of Wan-li. For the monochrome called Chia-ching, or blue of the sky after rain, azure has also to be combined with the glazing matter. The mineral is found in two districts of the province of Chê-kiang. Those who procure it go to the mountains and dig for it. They wash it, by means of baskets, in the mountain streams to remove the earthy matter adhering to it. It is dark yellow in colour. Large round pieces are of the first quality. They are distinguished by the names of the places whence they come. Traders carry them to the porcelain kilns, roast them there for three days, wash them carefully and sell them to the potters. There is a species of blue found in the mountains of Kiang-si and Kuan-tung, but it is pale in colour and incapable of enduring the action of the fire. It serves only for decorating common vases.
The same writer, quoting from an encyclopedia, says:—
Generally the matter used for painting blue porcelain is cobaltiferous manganese. It is found at no great distance below the surface of the ground, the excavators not being obliged to dig to a depth of more than one mètre at most. It occurs in all the provinces of the empire and there are three grades of it. Before use it has to be baked to red heat in a mass of clay. From each pound of mineral thus treated, barely seven ounces are obtained. Blue of the first quality is always used for the decoration of very fine porcelains, or on pieces destined for the palace, with dragon and phoenix designs. Thus 36 dollars must be spent to obtain thirteen litres of first-class blue; one-half of that sum for a similar quantity of second-class mineral, and one-seventh of it for the third-class variety. All the best blue used at Ching-tê-chên is found in the province of Chê-kiang. That found elsewhere is inferior. After the mineral has been roasted it is ground very fine in a mortar of unglazed porcelain, and afterwards moistened with water. When painted on the surface of the ware it is black, but becomes blue by exposure to the heat of the furnace.
It will be observed that in these extracts no mention is made of the Hui-ching, or Mohammedan blue. This choice mineral ceased, apparently, to be procurable after the Chia-ching era (1522—1566). The Kang-hsi potters and their successors used the native mineral only, but used it in such a manner as to obtain a colour little, if at all, inferior to that of the choicest Ming specimens. Many other details on the subject of cobalt are given in the Tao-lu, but they embody little information and are grouped in a confused manner. The substance of what they convey is that blue of the choicest quality was scarce, expensive, and difficult to prepare. Even when the best mineral was employed, any slight excess of temperature in the porcelain kiln sufficed to burn out its tint. There was, however, a particular variety capable of resisting great heat, and in all designs where very fine lines occurred, this blue had to be used. The duty of selecting the mineral devolved upon a special class of experts, and the whole art of refining and employing it was evidently carried to a high pitch of development. The result amply justified this toil, for the Kang-hsi era bequeathed to posterity porcelains of unsurpassed brilliancy and beauty.
Père d'Entrecolles, in his description of the processes witnessed by himself at the Kang-hsi factories, says that when a vase was intended to be entirely blue, it was dipped in a solution of cobalt. This method was not resorted to in the case of "Hawthorns." The pigment was laid on with a brush, not uniformly, but in overlapping layers, so as to produce the effect of clouds varying in depth and brilliancy. The beauty of the surface was wonderfully enhanced by this simple device. Sometimes a marbled or tessellated aspect was obtained by means of dark lines intersecting in diamonds or squares. The latter method, generally resorted to when the decoration consisted of clusters of petals only (without connecting branches or trunks), belongs to an inferior order of art conception, though what it loses through excessive formality is compensated in the opinion of many connoisseurs by the stronger play of reflected light on a surface thus treated.
In judging a specimen of "Hawthorn" the first point to be considered is the nature of the blue. The purer and more brilliant the colour, the better the specimen. Great depth, amounting almost to darkness, though highly prized by many connoisseurs for the sake of its fine contrast with the white design, is not an essential mark of quality. The design itself should be boldly and clearly executed. On the best pieces there is generally found a plum tree painted in its entirety,—branches, and flowers. But an even more pleasing method is to show the branches and their blossoms hanging down over the rim of the vase, as though the stem were within it. The commonest type has clusters of petals scattered regularly over the surface. In every case lustre and smoothness of glaze are important criteria. Spots where the surface has become rough and the blue verges upon black owing to faulty firing or an excess of moisture in the pigment, are emphatic blemishes. Finally the pâte should be tolerably fine and the bottom of the piece well finished.
Decoration in the "Hawthorn" style appears to have been applied to two classes of specimens only, pots for sugar or preserved ginger, and vases with trumpet-shaped necks. It is strange that these limits should have been observed. No explanation is furnished, but every collector is familiar with the fact. The finest and most imposing examples are the sugar-jars. They vary in size, from tiny pieces to specimens fifteen or sixteen inches high. Their shape is graceful and the swelling contours of the body are continued appropriately in the lid. It is on these jars that the beautiful "spray" decoration is chiefly found, and many of them show colour of most admirable depth and brilliancy. But the comparatively coarse use to which they have been applied has resulted in frequent accidents. Very rarely indeed does the collector find a flawless specimen with intact lid. In at least ninety-nine cases out of every hundred the bric-à-brac dealer is obliged to replace the original porcelain lid with a cover of carved teakwood. In Japan or Europe, where the art of repairing porcelain is understood, a very much larger number of these beautiful objects would have been preserved in a presentable condition. But the Chinese, curiously enough, never made the smallest progress in work which a people so appreciative of porcelain and technically so expert might have been expected to carry to a high degree of development. A Chinaman saw only two methods of dealing with fractured porcelain: either he cut down the piece until the injured section had disappeared, and there remained a truncated vase or a segment of a pot; or he bored a row of holes on either side of the fracture, and into them hammered little clamps of iron or copper. It was a frank kind of proceeding, but nothing clumsier or more disfiguring can well be conceived. The result of it all is that very few of the larger and finer types of "Hawthorns" have survived entire, and owing to the great and just esteem in which such pieces are held by European and American collectors, as well as to their comparative neglect by Chinese virtuosi, the majority of those procurable have already gravitated westward, and the Chinese market is virtually empty. Much of this applies to the ginger-pots also. They are smaller than the usual type of sugar-jar, being generally only ten or eleven inches in height; their contour is simpler and their lids are flat. As to colour, they stand neither higher nor lower than the sugar-jars, but they differ from the latter in the much more frequent tessellation of their surface, and in the more constant occurrence of the "petal-cluster" style of decoration as distinguished from the "spray." The trumpet-necked vases are the least attractive of all, their shape being apparently unsuited to the "Hawthorn" decoration. That is a matter of taste, however. In respect to quality, there is nothing primarily to choose between the three kinds, jars, pots and vases.
In many specimens of "Hawthorn" the surface is broken by white medallions, within which are painted formal designs, floral subjects, mythical animals or personages, in blue. In such cases the surface decoration is generally of the petal-cluster type, and the painting within the panels is weak and mechanical.
Marks of date are not found on "Hawthorns" of the Kang-hsi era; or, if they occur, are so rare as to be virtually non-existent for collectors' purposes. Sometimes a leaf of the artemisia, a conventional lotus, or a representation of the Che plant (silk-worm oak) is painted on the bottom of such specimens. The absence of a year-mark is partially explained by the fact that in 1667 the Emperor prohibited this manner of distinguishing porcelains, and at the same time ordered that verses, or historical quotations, recording the actions of great men, should not be used in decorating ware, since inscriptions that deserved reverence were thus condemned to share the fate of the perishable substance on which they were painted. There is no record to indicate that this prohibition was removed at a subsequent period of the same reign. Yet reasons exist for suspecting that such was the case. On specimens of seventeenth-century manufacture the Kang-hsi year-mark—Ta-Tsing Kang-hsi nien chi—certainly occurs much more rarely than might be expected, having regard to the great activity of the keramic industry at that epoch. But, on the other hand, it occurs too often to permit the supposition that the imperial veto held good throughout the reign. Kang-hsi had only occupied the throne five years when the prohibition in question was issued. It is impossible to believe that the numerous and undoubtedly genuine surviving examples of porcelains bearing the mark of the epoch were manufactured during those five years. This observation applies, however, to wares other than those decorated with the Hawthorn Pattern. On them a year-mark is seldom, if ever, found. In the great majority of cases they are without a mark of any description, the bottoms being quite plain, or having only a blue ring within the rim.
The "Hawthorn Pattern" is here placed first among the blue-and-white porcelains of the Kang-hsi era, not because it is technically entitled to that rank, but because of its merits from a decorative point of view, the reputation it justly enjoys among European and American collectors, and its special connection with the period. It may be safely asserted that all really fine "Hawthorns" belong to the Kang-hsi era, and that their manufacture virtually came to an end at its close.
The master-piece of the time, in blue-and-white, is the Kai-pien-yao, or soft-paste craquelé porcelain, which now began to be produced again in all its former beauty. Of this charming ware so much has been already said that a few words will suffice here. The Kai-pien-yao of the Kang-hsi era is scarcely, if at all, inferior to its predecessor of the Ming dynasty. The only immediately perceptible difference is that the pâte of the former does not show the distinctly red tinge peculiar to Hsuan-tê and Chêng-hwa specimens. It is evident that slightly different materials were used in manufacturing the porcelain mass—a conclusion consistent with the recorded facts that the clay of the Ming potters was taken from the bed of the river at Ching-tê-chên, and that the supply became exhausted in the second half of the sixteenth century. The Kang-hsi keramists had recourse to some other place, and the change is apparent in the nature of their ware. This does not by any means constitute an inferiority. In fineness of pâte; in wax-like purity and softness of glaze and body colour; in brilliancy and depth of blue pigment, and in boldness, spirit and skill of decoration, Kang-hsi will almost bear comparison with Hsuan-tê. Whatever advantage the latter period possesses in the inimitable quality of its blue—and the advantage, though not to be denied, is trifling—may be fairly matched by the superiority of the former's decorative designs and their highly artistic execution. Some of the landscapes, figures and floral subjects on vases of Kang-hsi Kai-pien-yao are pictures that any master might be proud to have painted, whether on account of the decorative instinct shown in their subtle distribution, or because of the vigour and feeling with which they are limned.
The collector must not expect to find large, imposing pieces of Kai-pien-yao. The choicest specimens are often of tiny dimensions, as might almost be anticipated from the delicate nature of the ware. Little vases, two or three inches high, for holding a single blossom; snuff bottles of even smaller size; vermilion boxes; rice-bowls; cups; plates, and such things, constitute the bulk of procurable examples. Gracefully shaped vases from eight or ten inches to a foot and a half in height may be occasionally found, but they are exceedingly rare, and, if without blemish, command almost prohibitive prices. On smaller specimens of Kai-pien-yao the Kang-hsi year-mark frequently occurs, but larger pieces seldom have this indication. The clear and pure quality of their blue is the safest and readiest means of distinguishing them from their successors. Further reference will be made to this point by and by.
Exceedingly thin, hard-paste porcelain, decorated with blue under the glaze, was also produced with signal success by the Kang-hsi potters. This exquisitely delicate ware, as thin as paper and nearly as translucid as glass, stands on the same plane as the Kai-pien-yao from a technical point of view, but is artistically inferior, lacking, as it necessarily does, the dazzling contrast presented by the wax-like white body and brilliant blue decoration of soft-paste porcelain. Chinese connoisseurs, however, set much store by hard-paste blue-and-white "egg-shell," and it unquestionably occupies a high place among the chefs-d'œuvre of the period. Cups, bowls, plates, and so forth, appear to have been chiefly manufactured. Vases, ewers or fish-bowls of any considerable size scarcely exist for the ordinary collector. The year-mark of the era often occurs on hard-paste egg-shell pieces, but it will be understood from what has been already said, that such a distinction is neither essential nor trustworthy. Deception need not be greatly feared, however, in the case of such specimens. If the decorative design is well executed, the blue of fine, clear but not necessarily deep tone, the glaze lustrous, the biscuit thin, and the general technique plainly excellent, the collector may be confident that he has to do with a genuine example. Modern potters were not competent to produce successful imitations of work requiring so much skill.
It is remarkable that only in recent years have the merits and beauties of soft-paste blue-and-white porcelain obtained recognition outside China, or even from foreign virtuosi residing in China. Many fine collections of various porcelains have been made by men whose commercial, diplomatic, or consular duties held them in China for a term of years, and whose tastes led them to utilize the golden opportunity that a sojourn in that country afforded two decades ago. But in few, if any, of these collections did the prince of blue-and-white porcelains hold a representative place. Specimens of medium quality were indeed present, but so small was their number and so slight the consideration bestowed on them, that their possessors had evidently acquired them accidentally, and without any real cognisance of their excellence. This singular fact may have been due, in part, to the comparatively high prices that specimens of Kai-pien-yao always commanded in the Chinese market. A native collector seldom thought of seeking any other kind of blue-and-white ware. Hard-paste pieces, except of the egg-shell type, had little attraction for him: however fine their colour and rich their decoration, they did not represent really choice porcelains, according to the standards that he applied. But for soft-paste porcelains of high quality and celebrated eras, he was prepared to pay prices that would have seemed quite extravagant to Western collectors in their uninstructed days; and, as a necessary consequence, traffic in such ware was confined to the Chinese themselves. But when closer and more intelligent scrutiny began to be directed to the subject, and when the standards adopted in China itself began to be recognised as technically true at least, soft-paste blue-and-white ware quickly rose to its due place in the esteem of collectors.
In addition to "Hawthorn," Kai-pien-yao, and hard-paste "egg-shell," large quantities of ordinary blue-and-white porcelain were manufactured during the Kang-hsi era. The general verdict as to these wares is that the grand colour of the blue is always an attractive feature. The páte is fine, the glaze smooth and lustrous, the workmanship skilful; but over and above these recommendations the tone of the blue especially attracts attention. Its clearness, brilliancy, and depth distinguish it from the blue of the rival epoch, Chien-lung (1736–1795), and give it a marked advantage over the colour of the Lung-wang-yao (1567–1619), though the full, solid tone of, the latter is unquestionably imposing. A very little experience will enable the connoisseur to recognise the bright, pure Kang-hsi blue from anything of later date, while the only Ming specimens large enough and numerous enough to create any confusion, namely, those of the Lung-ching and Wan-li workshops, present, on their side, unmistakable features. The Kang-hsi decorators took their designs from a very large field. Especially addicted to figure subjects, they loved to depict hunting scenes, war scenes, garden scenes, in all of which Mandarins, braves, dames of high and low degree, and children at play occupied a great part of the space to be decorated. Palm trees and quaintly shaped rocks appear everywhere. Geometrical diapers, and ingenious arabesques, often betraying distinctly Egyptian affinities, and boldly curved scroll patterns constitute another class of motives borrowed chiefly from ancient bronzes. Too frequently the painting itself is weak and mechanical. That it was more likely to assume this character than to display originality and vigour, may be gathered from the records. "Each variety of round vase decorated with blue sous couverte," says the Tao-lu, is manufactured by hundreds. If the pictures are not identical, great irregularity results. For this reason, the expert who sketches the design does not study the art of laying on the colours; and per contra, the man who applies the colours does not learn how to sketch. Thus each employs his hand always on the same object without dividing his attention. Those who sketch and those who colour are separated in the same studio so that their work may be uniform." And what this uniformity of work actually meant in practice will be understood from the account of M. d'Entrecolles:—"The business of painting is divided, in one studio, between a large number of workmen. One's sole duty is to form the first coloured ring seen near the rim of the piece; another traces flowers for yet another to paint. One confines himself to sketching landscapes, another does not go beyond birds and animals." What was gained in celerity by this division of labour was often lost in originality. Yet these Kang-hsi porcelains are always redeemed by their fine colour, whether the artistic features of their decoration be good or bad. In many of the better specimens bands of scroll pattern or diapers, incised in the pâte, surround the bases and rims, adding appreciably to the decorative effect. In others the blue decoration is confined to medallions, the whole of the rest of the surface being occupied by arabesques in low relief.
Another class of hard-paste porcelain decorated with blue sous couverte, numerous and beautiful examples of which were manufactured during the Kang-hsi era, is that known to Western collectors as soufflé, and called in China Chui-ching-yao. The colouring matter was applied by blowing it through a tube covered with gauze. Thus the surface became covered with speckles of colour, more or less minute and close, showing a charming play of light and shade. M. d'Entrecolles describes the process thus:—"The blue is fully prepared. Then a tube is taken, one orifice of which has very fine gauze stretched over it. The end of this tube is lightly dipped in the colouring solution so that the gauze becomes saturated, whereupon the workman blows through the tube against the porcelain, of which the surface becomes covered with little blue specks. This species of ware is dearer and rarer than that not having its colour soufflé, because the execution of the process is very difficult if the requisite proportions are preserved." Sometimes the piece received no other decoration than this soufflé blue, in which case it ranked as a monochrome, and depended entirely upon the brilliancy and depth of its colour. In other instances floral designs, landscapes, or figure subjects, were sketched in gold upon the surface of the glaze. This addition cannot be called a happy inspiration, especially as the gold, being inperfectly fixed at a low temperature, and sometimes not fired at all, suggested the idea of an accidental adjunct, and very soon disappeared under friction, leaving only unsightly traces of its presence. The fashion had descended from the Ming dynasty, for in the imperial requisition of the eighth year of Chia-ching (1529) it appears that among the articles required for the palace were:—
Large round dishes of pure blue glaze with dragons in sea-waves, inside; a cloud-scroll ground with three lions and dragons, outside, painted in gold over the glaze.
Yet another method was to interrupt the soufflé surface by medallions containing designs also in blue under the glaze. Very pleasing effects were thus obtained, slightly marred, however, by a want of contrast between the decoration within the medallions and the colour of the surrounding field. A much more artistic style was to employ the soufflé blue as a ground for reserved designs in white. To accomplish this the design must have been protected with paper when the colouring matter was blown over the biscuit. The fashion is analogous with that of the "Hawthorn" ware, the only difference being that instead of limiting himself to blossoms and branches of plum, the artist depicted figure subjects, mythical animals and personages, precious emblems, and so forth. Beautiful and striking results were attained.
To this class of decoration belong porcelains covered with soufflé or plain blue and having designs or inscriptions faintly picked out in white. Immense care was taken in the execution of such specimens. The plan pursued was to apply the colouring matter uniformly, and afterwards intersperse sketches by removing portions of the blue with a pointed instrument. The effect was exceedingly delicate. Occasionally, while the outer surface of a bowl or libation cup was thus treated, the inner received finely executed diapers, scrolls, and ideographs, incised or in relief. The 'Ching-tê-chên expert plainly regarded such pieces as chefs-d'œuvre. They were manufactured in the Ming dynasty as well as in the Kang-hsi period, for among the items of the imperial requisition of the Wan-li reign the following is found—
Tea-dippers with white flowers on blue ground, and white dragons coiling through the flowers of the four seasons.
At the Ching-tê-chên factories during the Kang-hsi and two succeeding eras there was produced a porcelain which may be classed mid-way between the ordinary hard-paste ware and the soft-paste Kai-pien-yao. It possesses all the fine qualities of the latter, thinness of biscuit, milky whiteness of glaze, brilliancy of blue colour and artistic delicacy of decorative design. But it is without crackle, and the absence of this feature certainly deprives it of the peculiar wax-like aspect that adds so much to the charms of the Kai-pien-yao. This variety of blue-and-white porcelain is not specially distinguished by name in China, but it takes a high place in the esteem of Chinese connoisseurs. The collector recognises it easily by its lightness, thinness and the pure white of its body, this last feature constituting the chief distinction between it and hard-paste egg-shell porcelain.
Undoubtedly the Kang-hsi hard-paste porcelains, considered from the point of view of decorative effect, deserve the favour they have found with Western collectors. They belong to a grade of technical and artistic achievement below that of the Kai-pien-yao, but they have the practical advantages of being procurable in incomparably greater numbers at less cost and of much more imposing size. Moreover, it appears to be as far beyond the capacity of modern potters to reproduce them as it is to imitate the Kai-pien-yao itself. Their magnificent colour, the rich lustre of their glaze, and the thoroughly satisfactory quality of their beauty have thus far remained, and will apparently continue to remain, incomparable. Not infrequently, too, specimens are found which, though not absolutely of egg-shell thinness, approach it so closely as to be scarcely distinguishable. These are keramic chefs-d'œuvre of the highest order: even the most fastidious Chinese connoisseur frankly admits their merits. The more solid pieces, too, have a charm of their own: to brightness of effect they add a suggestion of restfulness and purity that raises them very close to the rank of fine monochromes. ‘There can be no doubt that, so far as porcelains are concerned, the ideal objects of virtu are monochromes; the noble reds (peach-bloom, bean-blossom, sang-de-bœuf, liquid-dawn, precious-ruby, coral, rouge, jujube, vermilion, and Rose-du-Barry); the strong, soft greens (cucumber-rind, apple-rind, peacock, and céladon); the glowing and delicate blues (Mazarin, cerulean of the sky after rain, and kingfisher); the shell-like or solid yellows; the exquisite satin or waxy whites (above all the soft-paste, Ting-yao); the transmutation tints and the many other colours at once curious and lovely that bear witness to the Chinese keramist's inventive genius and fertility of resource, constitute a catalogue of masterpieces within the range of which a collector with ample means and wide opportunity may well be content to limit himself. But how many amateurs can afford, how many, even though their resources permit, can hope, to procure any large assemblage of specimens so costly and now so rare? To those not thus blessed by fortune and happy in opportunity there remains an alternative not very much less satisfactory, the collection of blue-and-white. A good specimen of this charming ware never palls upon the taste; acquaintance only develops appreciation of its qualities. As an article of ornamental furniture it is always delightful. The virtuoso who is so fortunate as to be able to decorate a room with blue-and-white and blue-and-white only, has beside him a perpetual source of æsthetic enjoyment. Other porcelains need, as a rule, an appropriate environment; but blue-and-white adapts itself to every companionship, and when its advantages in that respect come to be more generally recognised, an over-mantel or a cabinet of chinghwa specimens will probably find a place in every artistically furnished house.
No detailed reference has thus far been made to the subjects chiefly chosen by Chinese potters for the decoration of porcelains. On a vast majority of specimens the dragon (lung) figures in some form or other. His shapes are numerous. Sometimes he is found so thoroughly conventionalised as to be almost unrecognisable; sometimes, he assumes an altogether realistic shape, and is limned performing a dance intended to be terrible but usually only grotesque; sometimes he is depicted with skill such as could be inspired only by a belief in his reality. But it must be confessed that there is something distinctly wearisome about this unceasing repetition of a fabulous monster which cannot be rendered picturesque except by methods of representation scarcely possible on porcelain. Yet the Chinese decorator could hardly give less prominence to a monster that occupies such an important place in the traditions and superstitions of his nation. The celestial dragon, guardian and buttress of the dwellings of the deities; the spiritual dragon that makes the wind blow and the rain fall; the terrestrial dragon that shapes the courses of rivers and brooks; the treasure dragon that keeps watch over the precious things invisible to human eyes; the holy dragon that protects the Buddhist faith; the majestic dragon that appears on the imperial ensign and serves as a synonym for the occupant of the throne—all these are forms in which the fabulous snake presents himself to Chinese imagination, and on porcelains destined for official use his introduction into some part of the decorative design becomes almost a necessary tribute to his supernatural ubiquity. It must be noted, however, that though the iteration of the dragon is a defect in Chinese keramic decoration, some of the very choicest specimens of blue-and-white porcelain carry this design, especially vermilion boxes and pen-washers of soft-paste ware (kai-pien-yao) upon which the potter has evidently lavished all the resources of his technique. The dragon is also incised in the paste of egg-shell porcelains of unsurpassable quality, and is modelled in relief upon grand céladons and enamelled wares of the Kang-hsi, Yung-ching, and Chien-lung eras.
The phœnix (Fêng) stands next to the dragon in frequency of use as a decorative subject. It is one of the Four Supernatural Creatures, the others being the dragon, the Ky-lin (unicorn) and the tortoise (kwei). Tradition assigns to the phœnix a pheasant's head, a swallow's bill, a tortoise's neck, and the outward semblance of a dragon. But these characteristics are seldom apparent in its ordinary delineations. It is frequently employed with successful decorative effect, one of its happiest shapes being seen when it is disposed circularly so as to form a medallion. But the Chinese have not shown as much taste as the Japanese in adapting the phœnix to decorative purposes. In the hands of the latter it is often idealised into a creation full of grace and symmetry; in those of the former, it is seldom more than a strange-looking bird. The decorator's fondness for it is due in some degree to superstition, for it is regarded as an emblem of national prosperity and the herald of a beneficent reign.
The tortoise (kwei), though occurring with tolerable frequency in the decoration of blue-and-white porcelains can scarcely be called a favourite design as compared with the dragon and phœnix. It is, however, the chief emblem of longevity, and as such occupies a place of importance in the painter's range of subjects.
The K’i-lin, Ky-lin, or fabulous unicorn, is, like the phœnix, a composite animal with the body of a stag and the bushy tail of an ox. It is generally depicted with flames playing round its shoulders and clouds supporting it, for as the divinest of animals, the emblem of perfect good, it is supposed to tread so lightly that the air is insensible of its foot-prints and no living creature, however fragile, is crushed by its hoofs.
The tiger (hu), least commonly used of the four fabulous animals for decorative purposes, is invariably depicted with very little realistic success. When most conventionalised it is almost tolerable, but as a rule the Chinese keramic artist shows conspicuous want of skill in delineating this "King of Beasts" and "Type of Wisdom." Sometimes it is shown as the companion of the Taoist Rishi Kü Ling-jin; sometimes as the steed of Tsai Lwan, or Wên Siao, one of the Four Sleepers.
The lion of the keramic decorator is usually depicted with an immense mane, often carefully plaited, and sometimes with a bushy tail. He bears little resemblance to the gaunt, fierce animal of the jungle, but is a half playful, half ferocious beast, sporting with a ball which represents the sacred gem, or even associated with peony flowers.
Used generally for purposes of subordinate decoration, there are numerous symbols which at first sight suggest mere fanciful devices, but have, in truth, their own special meaning. These are well described by Mr. A. W. Franks, F.R.S., from information furnished by Dr. Bushell, of the British Legation in Peking, and that most accurate writer's classification is here followed.
The Ordinary Symbols are known in China as "Pa-pao," or the eight precious things. Eight is a favourite number with the Chinese in the grouping of objects that have religious affinities, doubtless because the "mystic trigrams," which constitute the alphabet of Chinese astrologers and philosophers, are eight in number. The connection of the "Pa-pao" with any particular religion has not, however, been traced. These eight symbols are as follow:—
1.—An oblate spherical object, represented sometimes white and sometimes yellow, with a ribbon entwined around it. This represents a pearl (chin), and is often used as a mark, either the object itself or the ideograph chin being depicted. It is the gem shown in the claws of dragons or as the object which they seek to grasp, and occasionally flame-like rays of effulgence issue from it.
2.—A circular object enclosing a square. This has been identified as the Kwei, or honorary tablet for officials, but there appears to be little doubt that it was originally a representation of the Chinese "cash," a small copper coin having a square hole through which a string is passed. The decorative purpose of this symbol is to typify riches.
3.—A lozenge-shaped object having fillets threaded through it. This also is supposed to represent the Kwei, or stone of honour for officials. Two of such lozenges, with overlapping ends, form the dual symbol fang-shang.
4.—A lozenge-shaped object having a compartment above. This is supposed to be a variety of No. 3.
5.—An object resembling a mason's square, being the king, a sonorous stone, or bronze plate, used like a bell in China. An ideograph having the same sound (king) signifies "goodness," "prosperity," "fortune," and the instrument is consequently depicted instead of the ideograph, being carved in that sense on the ends of rafters and on articles of furniture.
6.—Two oblong objects placed close together, and supposed to represent books; hence symbols of literature, which the Chinese hold in highest esteem.
7.—A pair of curved objects, representing rhinoceros horns (se-keo).
8.—A leaf, of variable form; probably a leaf of the artemisia (ai-yeh), which is an emblem of good augury.
These symbols are sometimes seen carried by a procession of fantastic figures, possibly tribute-bearers from the tribes of the Man, or southern barbarians. They are also used as marks, and "may generally be distinguished from other ornaments by ribbons or fillets entwined about them."
The Buddhist Symbols are called Pa-chi-siung, or the eight lucky emblems of Buddhism. "They are carved in wood or moulded in clay, and offered on the altar of every Chinese Buddhist temple, as well as repeated ad infinitum in architectural decoration. They are derived from India."
9.—A bell (chung). This is often replaced by the lun or chakra, the wheel of the law.
10.—An univalve shell (lo), the chank-shell of the Buddhists. It is carried by masters of ships to insure a prosperous voyage.
11.—A State umbrella (san), supposed to represent the Wan-min-san, or "umbrella of ten thousand people," "which is presented to a Mandarin on his leaving his district, as a token of the purity of his administration."
12.—A canopy (kae).
13.—The lotus flower (hwa). This is the sacred blossom of the Buddhists. It takes several forms, varying from the original in proportion to the painter’s want of skill.
14.—A sacred urn (kwan).
15.—Two fishes (yu) united by fillets. This is supposed to "allude to domestic felicity, because a fresh-water fish like a perch is said to go about in pairs, always faithful to each other." Two fishes, not necessarily united by a fillet, are the oldest of all ornaments found on porcelain. They occur frequently in relief, or incised, upon plates and bowls of Sung céladon.
16.—The angular knot, the intestines (chang), used as an emblem of longevity.
Some other common symbolical devices are:—
17.—A circularly arranged seal character for sho, longevity. This ideograph has no less than a hundred different forms, and not infrequently a vase or a cup has for sole decoration different forms of the ideograph. It occurs in all kinds of combinations, and shares with the ideograph fuh ("felicity"), of which also there are many forms, the distinction of figuring most frequently in keramic decoration.
18.—A bat (fuh). The word "fuh," a bat, has exactly the same sound—though of course its ideograph is different—as fuh, felicity. Hence a delineation of a bat has come to be commonly used as a synonym for "felicity." Occasionally five bats are found in combination. They symbolise the five blessings, namely, longevity, riches, peace, love of virtue, and a happy death.
19.—The eight trigrams, known as the Pa-kwa. "They consist of combinations of broken and entire lines, each differently placed. The entire lines represent the male, strong, or celestial element in nature, and the broken, the female, weak, or terrestrial. Each group has its own name, and even the dishes at a feast are arranged in accordance with these diagrams. They are said to have been first published by Fuh-hi, the legendary founder of the Chinese polity, who is stated to have lived B.C. 3852 to 2738, and to whom they were revealed by a dragon horse. By them the Chinese philosophers attempted to explain all the secrets of nature and of being. The diagram shows the oldest arrangement, in which they are supposed to be connected with the points of the compass, the north and south being, however, reversed, according to the Chinese system (i.e., the south represented by three entire lines, the north by three broken). "The circular figure in the centre is the mystical device, the Yang and Yin, the male and female elements of nature. This device is not infrequently employed as an ornament in China."
Among the figures depicted on porcelain none are so common as the Pa Sien, or Eight Immortals, legendary beings of the Taoist sect, said to have lived at various times and attained immortality. They are found sometimes in combination—especially where the decoration consists of red and blue sous couverte, the Pa Sien being then depicted in blue among a diaper of red waves—and sometimes they are shown as separate figures, of which there are two sets, one standing the other seated. In other cases they are represented riding upon various animals among the waves of the sea. Each figure has an emblem of its own, and occasionally the emblem, or symbol, occurs alone as a device. Many other decorative devices are employed typifying, for the most part, longevity. "The greatest desire of a Chinaman is long life," writes Mr. Franks, "which prolongs his enjoyment of this world's goods, and ensures his receiving the respect paid to old age in a country governed by the maxims of Confucius. Longevity is therefore the first and greatest of the Wu Fuh, or Five Blessings. The Taoists, or followers of Lao Tsze, carried this still farther, spending their time, like the medieval alchemists, in the search after the elixir of immortality. Hence, as might be expected, the emblems of longevity occur very frequently on porcelain, and take a great variety of forms, all symbolising good wishes to the possessors. It may be useful, therefore, to describe these emblems briefly.
"One of the commonest of the seal characters with which porcelain is decorated is the word sho, 'longevity' (already spoken of) of which the varieties are endless. A set of a hundred varieties is seen on a roll in the British Museum; another set is given in Hooper and Phillips Manual of Marks." The same ideograph is also found as a mark.
The Taotist god of longevity—supposed to be Lao-tze himself—is often shown on porcelain. He appears in the form of an old man in the garb of a scholar of ancient times, of almost dwarfish stature, with an elongated bald head, holding a sceptre of longevity, sometimes riding on a stork or tortoise, and sometimes resting his hand on a deer. A Japanese work (E-hon Koji-dan), published in 1720, speaks of him as the Ancient of the South Pole Star, the luminary that presides over human life, and by its appearance heralds tranquillity to the world. The story told in support of this identification is thus translated in Anderson's British Museum catalogue:—"In the period Yuan-Yu (1086–1094 A.D.) there lived an old man in the capital of China. He was only three feet high, and of this measure his head formed the moity. Every day he went into the city and foretold the future to the people. With the proceeds of his prophetic trade he bought saké, and when he had drunk freely he would strike his head and say, 'I am a sage, and can bestow the gift of long life.' A certain man having seen him, painted his portrait, and presented it to the Emperor, who summoned the strange being to the palace, and after regaling him with saké, asked how many were the years he numbered. He made no reply, but told many stories of past ages, and suddenly vanished, no one knew whither. On the following morning it was announced that the light of the South Pole Star had, on the previous evening, touched the Imperial palace. The Emperor then comprehended that the old man was an incarnation of the Star of Longevity, and preserved his portrait with the deepest veneration. The pictures drawn at the present day are derived from this, but in late years representations of the deer, crane, and tortoise, animals emblematic of long life, have been placed by the side of the sage." Chinese modern literature identifies the old man as Tung Wang-kung, one of the first beings evolved from chaos by the spontaneous volition of the primordial principle, and as the husband of the fairy Si Wang-mu (Japanese Sei-ô-bô), who usually appears in the form of a richly dressed female with a royal tiara, standing on a cloud and accompanied by two girl attendants, one of whom holds a dish of peaches, the other a processional or ceremonial fan. The Rishi Tung Wang-Kung is also frequently attended by two boys, one of whom carries a peach, the other bears two rolls suspended from a long staff.
Reference has already been made to the Ki'lin or Ky-lin, which is at once a symbol of good government and of longevity, its term of life being supposed to extend to a thousand years. Mr. Franks notes that most of the animals commonly but erroneously called Ky-lin are other monsters, especially the fabulous lion of Korea, the true Ki-lin having the body and hoofs of a deer, the tail of a bull, and a single horn on his forehead.
The deer (luh) is also an emblem of longevity. A white stag frequently accompanies the God of Longevity, as noted above. It sometimes carries in its mouth another emblem, the fungus (to be spoken of presently). A deer, however, is also used as a symbol of official emolument or prosperity, having the same sound as the word for the latter (luh).
The hare (tu) is sacred to the moon, where the Taoists believe it to live, pounding the drugs that form the elixir of life. It is stated to live a thousand years, and to become white when it has reached the first five centuries. The hare, often miscalled a rabbit, occurs on porcelain both as decoration and as a mark.
The fox (hu) is considered a very mysterious animal. It is said to attain the same age as the hare, when it is admitted to the heavens and becomes the "celestial fox." It is used, but not frequently, in the decoration of porcelain as an emblem of longevity.
The tortoise (kwei) was also regarded as a supernatural animal and its shell was used in divination. The tortoise with a hairy tail appears as an attendant on the God of Old Age, and is used as an emblem of longevity. A Chinese phrase kwei ho tung chun signifies, "May your days be as long as those of the tortoise and the crane."
The crane (ho) is among the commonest emblems of longevity. Tradition assigns to it a fabulous age, and says that for six hundred years it requires no sustenance but water, and that after two thousand years it turns black. The Chinese keramic artist has never been as happy as the Japanese in his use of the crane for decorative purposes, but it nevertheless appears sometimes on his wares in a sufficiently pleasing form. According to some expounders of Chinese mythical zoölogy the black crane is a special species, there being in all four varieties—the black, the yellow, the white, and the blue. Its association with the God of Longevity has already been mentioned. It also appears as the aërial steed of Wang Tsz'kiao, and as the companion of the poet Lin Hwa-ching.
"Among plants there are three, which, though not all strictly speaking emblems of longevity, are closely connected with it; these are the pine, bamboo and plum. The Chinese say 'the Pine, Bamboo and Plum are like three friends, because they keep green in cold weather.' The pine (sung) is a very common emblem," and is constantly found in keramic decoration. "Its sap was said to turn into amber when the tree was a thousand years old. The bamboo (chuh) is another emblem, owing probably to its durability. Its elegant form causes it to be frequently traced on works of art. The plum tree (mei), though not properly an emblem of longevity, is indirectly connected with it, as the philosopher Lao Tsze, the founder of the Taoist sect, is said to have been born under a plum tree.
The peach (tao) is a symbol of marriage but also of longevity. Great virtues were attributed to the peach, especially that which grew near the palace of Si Wang Mu, Queen of the Genii, where the fruit ripened only once in three thousand years.
The gourd (hu-lu) is also an emblem of longevity, and being largely used as a wine-bottle, it possesses another significance in decorative designs. It does not, however, occur frequently.
"Of all plants the most common emblem of longevity is the fungus (chi or ling-chi)." Its durability when dried is doubtless the origin of the significance attached to it. The particular fungus depicted in decorations is believed to be the Polyporus lucidus, which grows at the roots of trees. Large specimens of it, or imitations carved in wood and gilt, are preserved in temples, and it frequently occurs in pictures of Lao Tzse and the other Immortals, or in the mouth of deer. Sometimes it is accompanied by grass-like leaves representing the actual grass among which it grows, and which occasionally forces its way through the fungus while the latter is soft. The fungus is used not infrequently as a mark.
The Buddhist sceptre (jo-i) which is presented at marriages and to friends as an emblem of good luck, often enters into decorative designs, and is always shown in the hands of the God of Longevity. It is made of a great variety of materials, such as jade, enamelled metal, carved lacquer, porcelain, and so forth.
It will, of course, be understood that the objects mentioned above are not restricted to the decoration of blue-and-white porcelain. They occur with equal frequency on specimens of famille verte and famille rose. Indeed no device is commoner on fine porcelains of the last named variety than a branch of peach tree with fruit, the leaves executed in translucid green enamel, and the fruit in the broken tints and half tones peculiar to the famille rose. Strawberries are almost as often found on fine specimens of this family, but they are chosen solely on account of their suitability to the palette of the famille rose painter, and not because of any emblematic significance attaching to them.
As to blue-and-white of the pâte tendre class, the subjects affected above all others by decorators—the ubiquitous dragon excepted—is the pomegranate tree. Why this should be the case, no explanation is forthcoming, other than the obvious fact that the branches and fruit lend themselves readily to graceful composition and distribution over the surface. Landscapes too are very frequently depicted, their details finished with the utmost care, and some of them showing a fine artistic sense. Garden scenes are also found, not uncommonly having a more or less close affinity with the familiar old willow pattern. Figure subjects, however, are comparatively rare on soft-paste porcelains, with the exception of snuff-bottles. On the whole, the decorators of this choice ware seem to have been guided chiefly by canons of chastity and refinement, and to have avoided the incongruity of attempting to produce dazzling effects on a surface that lent itself best to delicate and soft subjects.
When speaking of the choicest wares of the Ming dynasty, allusion was made to decoration with red sous couverte, the most celebrated examples of which were the Hung-yu-pa-pei, or "red-fish-stemmed cups" of the Hsuan-tê era, and it was there stated that without doubt the same style of decoration continued to be produced equally skilfully on porcelains of later dates. In all ages connoisseurs have had their special favourites. It is easy to find Chinese dilettanti who still maintain that nothing comparable with the Hung-yu-pa-pei in brilliancy and depth of red and snow-like purity of white, ever emanated from any workshop after the Hsuan-tê era. But unless that preference be based on points not perceptible to every-day eyes, it may safely be said that the experts of Kang-hsi, Yung-ching and Chien-lung did not fall behind those of Hsuan-tê in this branch. They—that is to say, the potters of the golden age of the Tsing dynasty—called red sous couverte Yu-li-hung a term intended to convey the idea of red seen floating in a limpid medium. They employed the same colouring matter—silicate of copper—as that used by their Ming predecessors, and they applied it much in the same manner as that followed in painting with cobaltiferous manganese. The temperature of development in the kiln was also the same in the case of blue and red, as is proved by the fact that they are found occurring together in perfect tones upon the same piece. Evidently, however, great difficulty attended the production of fine Yu-li-hung, for an exceedingly high value has always been put upon it by Chinese connoisseurs. The points of excellence are the quality and tone of the red—which must be at once brilliant like a ruby, and soft as velvet—the purity of the white and the lustre of the glaze. Many varieties of red are found on porcelains thus decorated, sang de bœuf, ruby, bean-blossom, reddish brown, liver colour and maroon. It is maintained, however, by Chinese collectors—to whose verdict the foreign connoisseur must, of course, bow in such matters—that the potter's highest aim was to produce a colour combining brilliancy and strength with softness and liquidity. According to this canon, what the amateur has to look for is the red of fresh blood or of a ripe cherry, and his standard may be that the purer and more dazzling the tone, the choicer the specimen. In old-time descriptions of such decoration sharp definition of the red design's contours is spoken of as a special tour de force, the sudden juxtaposition of the snow-white ground tending to give salience-and emphasis to the decoration. But in some examples highly prized and plainly deserving the esteem in which they are held, a slight clouding of red appears at the edges and in the interstices of the design, and the result is soft and charming. It need scarcely be said that no variety of this ware is choicer than that in which the red is of the bean- blossom (or "peach-blow") type. Moreover, although the colour does not belong to any of the very rarest types—fresh-blood, ruby, ripe-cherry, or peach-bloom—but falls below them in strength and brilliancy, the specimen may still have claims to a prominent place in any collection. A distinctly impure muddy red alone condemns the ware. In the great majority of really choice examples the red shows dappling and spotting with transparent green, varying from emerald to the colour of powdered tea-leaf (chamo). This feature is considered of the highest importance. It establishes an affinity between the Yu-li-hung and the celebrated Pin-kwo-ts'ing ("peach-bloom").
As to red sous couverte found in combination with blue, sometimes the one colour predominates, sometimes the other. Many of the specimens in this class are of remarkable beauty and value, especially those of the Kang-hsi and Yung-ching eras, in which the grand blue, delicate, pure and brilliant, characteristic of those epochs, consorts most effectively with the red. In these examples also the presence of green spots or dapples, floating in the red field, constitutes a mark of special choiceness, and frequently helps to give point to the decorative design. Favourite subjects with the decorator were the Eight Taoist Immortals in blue walking on red waves; red flowers suspended among blue scrolls; blue dragons among red clouds or waves; white dragons, with finely engraved scales, among red waves, pomegranate trees, their branches and leaves in blue and their fruit in red, and floral or leaf scrolls in red divided by blue bands. Large and imposing specimens decorated with the two colours under the glaze are occasionally found, but where red alone is employed the choicest examples are generally small. Finally it may be noted that many specimens of these porcelains carry the six-ideograph mark (Ta-tsing Kang-hso nien chih, or Ta-tsing Yung-ching nien chih) in blue sous couverte. The reader should perhaps be reminded that no reference is here made to over-glaze decoration in red combined with blue sous couverte. That belongs to an entirely different category.
The next year-period after Kang-hsi was Yung-ching, which lasted only thirteen years (1723-1736). So far as concerns blue-and-white porcelain, nothing need be said of this era except that the manufacture of all the varieties of the preceding reign was continued with undiminished success. The Ching-tê-chên factories were then under the direction of Nien, of whom the Tao-lu records that he himself selected materials for the imperial porcelains and personally supervised the processes of the potters. Pieces thus produced were said to be "of a high degree of fineness and elegance," which verdict is unquestionably endorsed by the experience of modern collectors, to whom everything bearing the Yung-ching mark—Ta-Tsing Yung-ching nien chi—is of beauty and value. Nien, or Nien-Kung (the Sieur Nien) as he is commonly called, was unquestionably an artist of conspicuous ability. It will be seen by and by that under his guidance the experts of Ching-tê-chên manufactured monochromatic and polychromatic glazes of great variety and remarkable quality, and that delicate processes of enamel decoration (over the glaze) were also carried to a high degree of excellence. The wares of his era were called Nien-yao. Twice a month quantities of them used to be forwarded to Peking for imperial use, and at frequent intervals the Emperor was solicited to convey his wishes to the factories. Thus stimulated the keramic art could scarcely fail to flourish. But it added nothing to the catalogue of choice productions in respect of decoration sous couverte.
In the absence of year-marks the connoisseur will find it almost impossible to distinguish between Kang-hsi and Yung-ching specimens of the classes now under consideration. The quality of the pâte is identical, the tones of the sous-couverte colours are similar, and the fashions of decoration differ only in one respect, namely, that figure subjects were more affected by the experts of the former era.
The Chien-lung period (1736–1795), which followed that of Yung-ching, was perhaps the most prolific of all Chinese epochs, if considered with respect to the number of specimens it has furnished to Western collections. The author of the Tao-lu speaks of the era with great enthusiasm, and his eulogies were not exaggerated. The imperial factories were controlled by Tang, commonly called Tang-Kung (the Sieur Tang), and the wares manufactured under his direction are known as Tang-yao. This expert really belongs to the Yung-ching as well as to the Chien-lung era. He came to Ching-tê-chên in 1727, and served, apparently, as assistant-superintendent under Nien, who is mentioned above. But at the commencement of Chien-lung's reign Nien was employed elsewhere on duties of a different character, which occupied him until 1743, when he returned to Kiu-kiang and became joint superintendent of the potteries with Tang. These two masters carried the keramic art of China to its zenith. Of Tang it is recorded:—"He employed the greatest care in, choosing materials, and all the vases manufactured under his direction were consequently of the most perfect delicacy, brilliancy, and purity. He could also imitate the most celebrated antique wares, never failing to obtain the same degree of elegance and beauty as his originals. He further imitated all varieties of most prized glazes, reproducing them with rare skill. The perfection of his porcelains left nothing to be desired. … In his day the productions of the imperial factory attained their highest point of excellence. Tang was especially ordered by the Emperor to design plaques representing the various processes of porcelain manufacture, and to accompany them by detailed explanations. The result was twenty-two plaques, in connection with which a celebrated Chinese author wrote of Tang:—'Alone he deliberated on the flower and the fruit (that is to say, on the brilliant and solid qualities of porcelain), and his individual genius supplied all the resources he required. He renewed the manufacture, long interrupted, of jars decorated with dragons (i.e. monster vases for gold fish) and wares of Chün (vide Chün-yao of the Sung dynasty) and revived the processes of ancient experts.'" All these eulogies, though well merited on the whole, must be taken with reserve so far as regards blue-and-white porcelain. Speaking technically, the Chien-lung potters were not less expert than those of Kang-hsi and Yung-ching in any direction. Their pâtes were just as fine and hard, their glazes as_brilliant and their decorative designs as happy. They continued to manufacture the delicate and beautiful Kai-pien-yao and hard-paste egg-shell with unsurpassed skill. Yet in one important respect their blue-and-white ware showed inferiority. The quality of the blue was not so pure. Whether a less choice mineral was used or whether the processes of preparing it—and this hypothesis seems scarcely tenable—had deteriorated, there can be little doubt that the Chien-lung blue stands almost in the same relation towards the Kang-hsi and Yung-ching colour as that occupied by the Wan-li blue of the Ming dynasty in comparison with its predecessors of the Hsuan-tê and Chia-ching eras. The Chien-lung potters evidently appreciated this. For instead of relying entirely on brilliancy and intensity of colour, they tried to heighten the effect of their blues by stippling. In many cases the stippled portions assumed a metallic appearance under the action of heat; in others they showed merely as spots of intenser colour. Strength and density were thus obtained at some cost of depth and brilliancy. Opinions will probably differ as to this verdict. It is conceivable that some connoisseurs may see evidences of high artistic instinct in the deep, intense tones of the Chien-lung ware. Certain it is that many grand pieces were manufactured, imposing in size, decorated with admirable care and well directed choice of motive, and altogether highly satisfactory for ornamental purposes.
It is not difficult to distinguish between the blue-and-white porcelains of Chien-lung and those of Kang-hsi and Yung-ching. The stippled or spotted appearance of the colour on specimens of the first-named period, whether a beauty or a blemish, is an easily identified feature. The mark of the era is Ta-Tsing Chien-lung nien chi.
The Chien-lung potters produced all the other varieties of decoration under the glaze enumerated in the above notice of the Kang-hsi era. No further reference is necessary here.
The succeeding eras of the present (Tsing) dynasty may be briefly dismissed. They differ from each other only in degrees of decadence. During the Chia-tsing epoch (1796–1821), which immediately followed that of Chien-lung, the potteries at Ching-tê-chên still sustained something of their former reputation. Many pieces dating from that era show beauty and technical excellence. But the art had taken a distinctly downward tendency, which became more and more marked in the next period, Taou-kwang (1821–1851). The porcelains of the latter, with few exceptions, are comparatively coarse and meritless. The impure colour of their blue decoration accords well with their faulty technique. This unsatisfactory state of affairs culminated in 1852, during the Hien-fung epoch (1851–1862), when the factories at Ching-tê-chên were destroyed in the Taeping rebellion. They were subsequently restored, and are at present tolerably active. But it is difficult to trace any affinity between the wares now produced and their admirable predecessors of the Chien-lung and Kang-hsi periods. Doubtless the decadence which commenced during the reign of Chia-tsing is to be attributed to the troubled state of the empire. In China the prosperity of the keramic industry appears to have been practically dependent upon imperial patronage. Under the Sung, Yuan, and Ming dynasties alike intervals of difficulty and disturbance preceding the downfall of the reigning house were synchronous with a decay of the potter's art. The analogy holds for the Tsing dynasty also. When Chien-lung's successor ascended the throne, he found the empire at the zenith of its power and renown. Elements of disturbance, though always existing, had been successfully held in check by the clear judgment and iron will of the great ruler. They speedily eluded the feeble control of Chia-tsing. Before he had been half a dozen years in power, the treason of secret societies was already becoming formidable. In 1803 he achieved the notoriety of barely escaping from a murderous attack in the public streets of Peking. In 1800 the first edict prohibiting foreign opium was issued. To students of history these two events recall the commencement of a long period—more than sixty years—during which China had little rest from internal or external complications. Not only her art excellence, but even the ability that inspired it, seems to have disappeared. Nor is there, so far as can be discerned, much chance of a genuine renaissance. Connoisseurs and men of taste generally will not look at wares belonging to an epoch more recent than the eighteenth century. There is practically nothing except the demand of the foreign market to encourage modern effort. Did Chinese annals contain any instance of the keramic industry recovering its vitality during the same dynasty that witnessed its decay, the outlook might be less unpromising. But there is no such precedent. It appears as though any sensible improvement must be preceded by one of two events—the comparative probability of which is difficult to estimate—a change of dynasty or an intelligent revival of official patronage on something like the ancient scale of magnificence. Whatever stimulus the export trade might have afforded, has been largely diminished by Japan's competition. Her manufacturers, in addition to rapid rejuvenescence of technical skill, show adaptability that ought to secure for their wares the permanent favour, if not the ultimate monopoly, of the Western market.
Before dismissing this portion of the subject, a word should be said about a variety of blue-and-white porcelain known to Western collectors as "Nankin ware," and by the Japanese ascribed to workshops at Canton. The latter misconception is evidently due to the fact that the porcelain originally came to Japan from Canton, and was therefore supposed to be the product of factories in or near that city. But the ware had nothing to do with either Nankin or Canton. It was manufactured at Ching-tê-chên, not in the imperial factories, however, but in those of the people. Its special appellation in the West and in Japan must not be taken as indicating radical dissimilarity from ordinary blue-and-white porcelains. The difference is merely an affair of quality. The pâte, though exceptionally thin, does not suggest the idea of a fine manufacture; the glaze is vitreous rather than lustrous, and has no claim to solidity; the decoration, though elaborate and profuse, is of the mechanical type, and the blue, if not impure, is thin and shallow. In the case of much of this "Nankin" ware the subjects chosen by the decorators were evidently influenced by European suggestion. Some of the designs closely resemble the formal floral scrolls of Delft and Sèvres, and others display distinctly Indian or Persian features. The disposition of the potter to construct pieces of polygonal section and to break the surface by fluting or convex panels, seems also a distinct reflection of foreign fashions. It is not likely that orders for blue-and-white porcelain were often given by European merchants in China during the last century. Enamelled wares would rather have been chosen. But orders for the latter would of course have been executed at the people's factories, not at those of the Emperor, and the makers of blue-and-white porcelain may thus have been indirectly inspired. There is no doubt, too, that during the reign of Kang-hsi when the propagandists of Christianity possessed great influence and won many converts in China, European designs were copied at Ching-tê-chên and European tastes consulted. Evidences of this tendency will be furnished later on.
The year-marks upon this so-called "Nankin" blue-and-white do not differ from those on finer varieties of porcelain, except that the Seal Character was seldom if ever used by the makers of the former.