China: Its State and Prospects/Chapter 6
CHAPTER VI.
GOVERNMENT AND LAWS.
The civilization of China will further appear from the consideration of the stability, regularity, economy, and efficiency of their government. The country, no longer torn by the contentions of rival princes and independent states, is united under one regular and established authority. The emperor, residing in his capital, extends his influence to the remotest corner of the land. Every officer that presides in the most distant district is especially appointed by the court, and every measure of importance is the result of arrangements issuing from the centre of power. To exert an influence over such an extent of territory, and for such a length of time, argues a minuteness of arrangement and a comprehensiveness of system, which could not have place in an uncivilized country.
The question has frequently been asked, how do the 
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Chinese, ignorant as they must be of the science of political economy, and destitute as they are of the knowledge of Christian ethics,—manage to keep such a mass of people in order, and preserve their empire free from encroachment and diminution? In attempting to solve this difficulty, we cannot but assign to the Chinese an intimate acquaintance with human nature, and an unusual skill in the application of well-defined principles to the business of life. The secret of their success in political matters is the establishment of the patriarchal system of government, grounded on the basis of filial obligation. The first principle in their moral code, is the duty of children to submit to their parents, and the right of parents to dispose of their children. Having been the instruments of bringing them into the world, and providing for their support and education, parents are considered as entitled to the unreserved respect and submission of their children; while disobedience to parental authority is punished with the severest rigour. From the dependency and inferiority of the infantile state, when this authority is naturally recognised and easily enforced, to the more advanced stages of life, the idea of an almost divine superiority is cherished, and no circumstances can arise in which the child is absolved from unqualified and undisputing obedience to the parent.
This principle forms the basis of their political code also. For though the emperor stands in no natural relation to his people, and is rather cherished by them than contributes to their support, yet he has induced the belief that he is their parent and protector, and as such possessed of unquestionable authority over them. In order to strengthen this assumption, the idea of divine right is superadded to that of earthly supremacy. Heaven and earth are considered the parents of all mankind, and the emperor, as the Son of Heaven, is of course next in authority, and reverenced accordingly. Whosoever, therefore, obtains the decree of Heaven, to ascend "the dragon throne," has a sort of mysterious dignity thrown around him; and it is in their opinion as wicked to dispute the authority of the supreme on earth as the supreme in Heaven. Both parents and rulers are by the Chinese infinitely exalted above children and subjects, and receive not only homage but adoration. Moral feeling, therefore, carried to an excess, and strengthened by superstitious awe, lead the Chinese without questioning to yield to authority; and this submissive, unresisting spirit is the source of that peace and good order which prevail throughout the empire. Thus to establish, and thus to sanction the most absolute despotism, and to render it subservient to the pacification of a great country, certainly argues a degree of penetration and discernment which does not comport with a barbarous state of society.
We are not here defending the justness of the principle, or maintaining the doctrine, that, because a ruler chooses to call himself the parent of a nation, therefore all his subjects arc children, and to be treated as if they were in their nonage; but if it be an object to secure the submission of the populace to a few rulers, we say, that a more convenient and effectual plan could not have been adopted. Grounding the authority on the most readily acknowledged title, that of the parental prerogative; and demanding obedience on the most powerfully constraining principle, that of filial affection; it is not strange, that subjection is attained, and confidence won. This has been the foundation of Chinese politics from the earliest ages of antiquity; it has prevailed through every successive dynasty; and even now succeeds in binding together their vast and increasing population. We could tell them of a better system, which, inculcating universal love, is equally effectual in restraining oppression on the part of the ruler, as well as insubordination on the part of the subject; which, while it requires servants to be "obedient to their own masters," insists on "masters doing the same things to them, forbearing threatening, knowing that they also have a master in heaven." But for a heathen country, where the light of the Gospel has never shone, we cannot but admire the wisdom of a legislative principle, which so effectually unites and tranquillizes so vast a nation.
The policy of the Chinese government will appear in the mutual responsibility, and universal espionage which prevail throughout all the offices of state, and to the remotest corner of the empire. Though the "Great Emperor,"—the "Imperial Ruler,"—and the "Holy Lord," as he is called, claims and exercises universal and unlimited control over all "within the four seas;" though he dwells in the "pearly palace," and sits on the "dragon throne;" with the designation of "Ten thousand years," for his title, and the meed of divine honours for his gratification; yet he finds that he cannot rule the empire without assistance, or regulate its multifarious affairs without the aid of his ministers. These he calls his "hands and feet," his "ears and eyes," and to these he condescends to delegate a portion of his authority; holding them responsible for its exercise, with their fortunes, their liberties, and their lives. The highest minister of state, being the creature of imperial power, can be degraded, bambooed, banished, and beheaded; subject to the whim of the only one, who claims and exercises irresponsible authority in China. Hence the Chinese have a proverb, that 'tis safer sleeping in a tiger's den, than basking in the sunshine of imperial favour.
The prime ministers of state, are called the "inner chamber," or cabinet; the first is a Mantchou Tartar, to which race the present royal family belongs; the second is a Chinese, who is likewise president of the imperial college; the third is a Mongul Tartar, also superintendent of the colonial office; and the fourth is a Chinese. This mixture of Chinese and Tartars in the great offices of state, with the latter always taking the precedence, is a specimen of the general system pursued by the Chinese, of setting the two races to watch over, and be responsible for, each other. They admit native Chinese to high and important stations, in order to satisfy the people, but they take care to have them associated with, or superintended by, Tartars; so that the former cannot devise schemes of rebellion, without being instantly discovered, and betrayed by the latter.
Under the cabinet they have the six tribunals, which take cognizance of their several departments, and report to the emperor for his decision and approval. The first is the tribunal of civil office, the presidents of which enquire into and report on the conduct of all magistrates, recommend persons to vacant stations, and suggest the propriety of promoting or degrading deserving or undeserving individuals. A vast amount of patronage, and power necessarily falls into the hands of a chamber which has the general superintendence of several thousand civil officers, from the viceroy of a province, down to the magistrate of the smallest district.
The second tribunal is that of revenue, appointed to take cognizance of the amount of the population, which the government is very careful to ascertain, in order to know what income may be expected from the various provinces, and what supplies should be transmitted to different parts of the empire, in case of famine. This tribunal also sees to the due collection and transmission of the land tax, which is paid partly in money and partly in grain; the coin of the realm is under their inspection, to see that it be not adulterated, and to "take care that the silver does not leak out of the country." Salt, on which a heavy duty is levied, and over which special officers are placed, is under the care of this board. The expenditure, as well as the income of the country, comes under their control; and the payment of the various officers, with the maintenance of the state sacrifices, is arranged and provided for by them.
The third tribunal is that of rites, taking cognizance of all religious ceremonies, court etiquette, and astrological predictions. For though there be no established religion, or paid hierarchy in China, the rulers think it necessary to perform certain ceremonies, in order to propitiate the gods and overawe the people, of which this board has the superintendence. According to Chinese notions, the supreme in heaven can only be worshipped by the supreme on earth; and in doing this, the emperor is his own priest, presiding at the sacrifice and announcing his prayers, while the people look on in silent awe. At the accession of a monarch, at each of the four seasons, and in times of felicitation, or calamity, the ruler of China appears as the high-priest of the people, and constitutes himself the chief medium of intercourse between earth and heaven. At the same periods, throughout the provinces, the various officers and magistrates pay their adorations to the presiding divinities of their several districts, the gods of the land and grain, the god of war, of literature, &c. all of which rites are determined by the board in question. The ceremonies to be observed on court occasions; the introduction and arrangement of nobles at the levees; the number of prostrations each is to make, and when; the clothes, caps, and boots they are to wear; the paths by which they are to come and go, to and from the imperial presence; and all other such like important minutiæ, are gravely and accurately specified by this board. The imperial astronomers are also placed under its superintendence ; for as these gentlemen have to calculate celestial phenomena, as well as to prognosticate terrestrial affairs; as they have to fix the lucky and unlucky days for the performance of civil and religious ceremonies; their labours come necessarily under the cognizance of the board of rites.
The fourth tribunal is that of war; taking the superintendence of the army, navy, and ordnance; appointing the number of troops assigned to each province; and inspecting the state of the forts, and other defences of the country. The army of China is rated at 700,000; who may rather be termed militia, being employed part of the year in cultivating the ground, and contributing to their own support. These generally clothe and arm themselves, according to their own fancy; and are distinguished by the character "robust," being stitched on to their jackets in front, and the word "brave," behind!
The regularly organized troops of the present dynasty are the Tartar legions, which amount to 80,000 effective men, arranged under eight banners, and always at the disposal of government. Their standards are yellow, white, red, and blue; each of which are doubled by being provided with a border. These are so distributed throughout the empire as to keep four thousand times their own number in order. The naval force is numerous, but inefficient; the ships of war are generally about the size of trading junks, but better built and manned; though it would require an indefinite number of them to cope with one of the smallest frigates of the British navy. As to their forts, those only at the Bogue, on the Canton river, deserve the name; but the incapability of these to resist the entrance of the British ships, a few years ago, was most clearly manifested. The management of all these defences is confided to the military tribunal.
Next comes the tribunal of punishments, which appoints and removes judges, takes cognizance of all judicial proceedings, and sees to the carrying out and execution of the laws. It is rather singular, that the supreme court of justice, in China, should be termed the tribunal of punishments, but it shews that the government of that country is more active in chastising the people for breaches of the law, than anxious to dispense justice to the injured and innocent. Every province is provided with a criminal judge, at a salary of £2,000 a year; this officer goes the circuit of his district periodically, and holds his court in the provincial city. There is a show of some solemnity, and certainly of terror, in a Chinese court of justice; but one looks in vain for the jury box. A man is not tried by his peers, in China; while examination by torture is generally employed; and the criminal is punished on his own confession.
The last tribunal is that of works, to which is committed the care of public buildings, the excavation of canals, the embankment of rivers, and the construction of bridges and locks. Any one who considers the immense trouble and expense necessary to maintain some of the above, with the ruin and devastation sometimes consequent on neglect in this department, will see, that a branch of public service of such importance ought to be placed under a separate board of management.
In addition to the above tribunals, there are other public offices, to which important affairs are confided. Such as the colonial or foreign office, for the superintendence of the extensive districts, which, by the annexation of Tartary to the empire, have been brought under the imperial sway. There is also the public censorate, the officers of which are appointed to oversee the affairs of the whole empire, and are allowed to reprove the sovereign, or any of his officers, without being liable to punishment. Full liberty is given them to descant on the general affairs of government, though not to interfere with the private concerns of the monarch; and they are frequently sent into various parts of the empire, to inspect and report on the conduct of some of the highest officers of state. Such an institution as this, where the expression of public opinion is generally suppressed, is certainly of great value, and indicates the wisdom of those statesmen who established, and the magnanimity of those rulers who endure it.
In addition to this, we have the grand national college at Peking, the members of which are all the chief of the literati of China. After having passed through three public examinations with honour, a select few are again tried, in order to their admission into this college. All matters which respect literature, and many which regard politics, are referred to this board, while the principal officers of state are chosen from among its members. Every individual in the empire is eligible to this distinction, and every scholar looks forward to it, as the consummation of all his wishes.
The laws of China are numerous, minute, and circumstantial, and give the best idea of the character of the people, and their advance in civilization, which could possibly be furnished. The present dynasty have published three works on law. The first contains the general laws of the empire, an elegant translation of which has been furnished by Sir G. Staunton. The next contains the bye laws, or particular regulations for each department of government; and the third is the work already alluded to, viz. "a collection of statutes for the present dynasty." As the general laws of China are best known, it may be well just to allude to them, as illustrative of the genius of the people from whom they emanate. The following testimony in their favour is by a writer in the " Edinburgh Review."
These encomiums are certainly high, and the general laws of China are, undoubtedly, much indebted to their elegant translator, and still more lavish admirer. In our humble opinion, many of the penal laws are just and good, and indicative of a knowledge of human nature, not to be met with in the savage state. Among the Chinese, the code is highly prized; and their only wish is, to see their enactments justly and impartially administered. The whole is divided into six sections, according to the six tribunals above named; and regard civil office, revenue, rites, military proceedings, punishments, and public works.
The civil laws refer to the system of government, and the conduct of magistrates. According to these statutes, hereditary rank is allowed, but only such as commenced with the present dynasty, and has been purchased by extraordinary services to the state. The appointment and removal of officers depend entirely on the will of the emperor. No officer of government can quit his station without leave, and no superior can interfere with his subordinates, except in the regular discharge of his duty. All officers engaged in cabals, and state intrigues, are to be beheaded; while those who neglect the orders of government, or fail in their duty, are liable to the appropriate penalties of the law. No magistrate can hold office in his own province; each officer is removed every five years; and, however high and dignified, they must always state, in every public document, how many times they have been degraded, in order to keep their delinquencies in remembrance.
Some of the fiscal laws, regarding the enrolment of the people, have been quoted in a former chapter. Under this head, the regulations relative to the landtax are included. This impost is supposed not to exceed one-fiftieth of the produce. The enactments regarding the lending of money, limit the interest to three per cent, per month; and licenses are granted to moneylenders and pawnbrokers, by which no inconsiderable revenue is realized. The maker of false weights and measures, is threatened with sixty blows; and the individual who passes inferior articles for good merchandize, with fifty blows.
The ritual laws assign to the emperor the exclusive privilege of worshipping the Supreme, and prohibit subjects from offering the great sacrifices. Magistrates are required to superintend the sacred rites, in their various districts; and, on such occasions, are to prepare themselves, by fasting, self-denial, and abstinence from every indulgence, under penalty of forfeiting one month's salary. The neglecting to prepare the proper animals and grain, for the sacrifice, is punished with one hundred blows; and a wilful destroying of the public altars, is visited with as many strokes, and perpetual banishment. The deities to be worshipped by the magistrate, are the local gods, the genii of the hills and rivers, and of winds and rain, the ancient kings, and holy emperors, faithful ministers, and illustrious sages,—who are all to be honoured with the accustomed rites, by the respective officers of each district. While, however, the government requires its ministers to worship the gods, according to the state ritual, it strictly forbids the performance of unauthorized worship; and will not permit private persons to usurp the ceremonial exclusively claimed by the ruler. If it should be objected, that all this does not much display the wisdom of our Chinese legislators, we can only reply, that they are not the first who have failed, in attempting to legislate about religion.
The military laws commence with drawing a cordon around the imperial residence, and threatening any person with the bamboo who shall enter its precincts without authority; while those who intrude into the apartments actually occupied by the emperor shall be strangled. No person is allowed to travel on the roads expressly provided for his majesty; and during the imperial journey, all persons must make way for the state equipage. This regulation is intended to keep up the impression of awe, with which the Chinese invest their rulers, as though they were too divine and majestic to be beheld by mortal eyes; and is no doubt designed to preserve the person of the ruler safe from harm, which under a despotic government is not at all unnecessary. The code next proceeds to legislate on the government of the army, which it places entirely at the disposal of the emperor; and takes up the subject of nocturnal police, which prohibits all persons from stirring abroad, from nine in the evening till five in the morning. In order to protect the frontier, it is enacted, that whoever without a license passes the barriers, and holds communication with foreign nations, shall be strangled: and whoever introduces strangers into the interior, or plots the removal of subjects out of the empire, shall, without any distinction between principals and secondaries, be beheaded. No law is more frequently or more lightly broken than this; the natives emigrate by thousands annually; while dozens of catholic priests are every year clandestinely introduced into the country, and protestant missionaries land frequently on all parts of the coast, and walk over hill and dale unhurt, and almost unhindered by the natives.
Respecting the policy of this regulation, however, much may be said. Though the Chinese flatter themselves with the idea that they are the greatest of nations, and almost the only people worthy of being called a nation; they cannot but see, how easily they have been overcome by a barbarous tribe from the north; and how much they are disturbed by every petty insurrection on their mountains, and every paltry piracy on their coasts. Contrasted with their own weakness, they must be aware of the power of foreigners. They see the rapid strides which Europeans are making towards conquest and power in the eastern world; and how the English, in particular, from the establishment of a factory, have proceeded to the erection of a battery; and then sending out their armies, have subdued whole kingdoms to their sway; till they number a hundred millions among their subjects, whom they keep in awe by a few thousand European troops. The Chinese, seeing this, could not but be alarmed for their safety, and the integrity of their empire. They therefore decided on checking the threatened evil in its infancy, and resolved to keep at arm's length a power, with which they knew that they could not successfully grapple. They judged that if they could but keep out the barbarians, they might preserve at once their dignity and territory; but if they once let them in, their fair dominions would fall a rapid and an easy prey to the encroaching strangers, and their majesty remain the mere shadow of a shade. And can we blame them? and can we say, that they had no reason for their conduct? Their policy is for them the wisest that could have been pursued; and if China is closed against us, we may thank ourselves for it. They might by admiting our commerce and our manufactures, still confer a mutual benefit on both countries; but if, by permitting the introduction of these, they lay themselves open to the infection of our intoxicating drugs, and afford an opportunity for the establishment of our colonizing system; they may have to regret, when they see their population diminishing, and their lands passing into other hands, that they did not adhere to the exclusive system, with which they commenced.
The criminal laws are particularly severe in the matter of high treason, which is either against the established government, or against the person of the sovereign. All persons convicted of having been principals or accessaries, in this heinous offence, are to be put to death by a disgraceful and lingering execution. Besides which, all the male relations of the offender, above the age of sixteen, shall be indiscriminately beheaded; while the female relatives and the children shall be sold into slavery and the property of the family, of every description, confiscated. In order to lead to the speedy discovery of the offence, any person who shall be the means of convicting another of high treason, shall be immediately employed under government, besides being entitled to the whole of the criminal's property. This severe and sanguinary law is indicative of the fears entertained, by the rulers, of assassination and rebellion. Under an absolute despotism, however, it is the best dictate of policy; and where the people are deprived of the privilege of thinking and speaking for themselves, nothing less than the terror of such a law will ensure the safety of the sovereign. All those who enter into the service of a foreign state, who aim by the practice of magic to bewitch the people, who sacrilegiously abstract the implements used in the public sacrifices, or who steal the imperial signet, shall be indiscriminately beheaded. All the above offences are included under the head of theft, in the Chinese code, because they reckon all those to be thieves, who oppose the established government, or who attempt to invade either the honour, authority, or personal security of the reigning monarch.
Stealing in general is punished by blows; but above a certain amount (£40.), by strangulation. Kidnapping persons, and selling them for slaves, is punished with blows and banishment. The disturbing of graves, is visited with the same infliction; and whoever mutilates, or throws away the unburied corpse of an elder relative shall be beheaded. With regard to murder and homicide, the Chinese are very strict and particular. Preconcerted homicide, is punishable by death. Killing in a fray, or sport, is denounced as murder; while homicide that is purely accidental, is redeemable by the payment of a fine. All those who cause the death of others by poison, magic, or terror, shall suffer death themselves; and all medical practitioners, who kill their patients, through ignorance of the established rules of practice, shall be fined, and prevented from exercising the profession; while those who do this designedly, and aggravate the complaint, in order to extort more money for the cure, shall be beheaded.
The offences of the inferior relations against the superior, are visited with a tenfold heavier punishment, while those of the latter against the former, are scarcely noticed. A parricide is to suffer the most lingering and shameful death that can be devised; and should the criminal even die in prison, the body is to be subjected to the same process, as if still alive; but if a parent put to death his own offspring, the offence is comparatively trivial. Whoever is guilty of killing a son, grandson, or slave, and charging another person with the crime, shall be punished by blows and banishment; but nothing is said about the crime of smothering female infants, which is so prevalent, because entirely unchecked, in China. Quarrelling and fighting is strictly prohibited in a country, where the rulers being few, and the subjects many, it is necessary to keep the people as quiet as possible. The bamboo is the remedy for the pugnacious propensities of the plebeians, and the number of blows is proportioned to the injury done, or the situation of the offending individual. A difference is observed, between striking with the fist or with a club; and the loss of an eye, tooth, finger, or toe, is visited with punishment, according to a graduated scale. A slave, beating or abusing his master, shall be put to death; while nothing is said about the master's beating his slave. A husband is not amenable for chastising his wife, except he inflict a wound; while a wife, striking her husband, is to receive one hundred blows. A child, striking or using abusive language to a father or mother, shall be put to death; while a parent, chastising' a disobedient child, so as to cause death, shall be punished with one hundred blows. This distinction between the claims of the superior and inferior relatives, is in unison with the system which they have adopted, of raising rulers and parents to the ranks of gods, and of depressing subjects and children to the level of slaves or brute animals. The policy, however, of these enactments, considering their design, will be easily seen.
Magistrates are forbidden to receive presents of any kind, except eatables, from the people, under the penalty of forty blows. Police officers, neglecting to apprehend offenders, are to be subjected to the bamboo. In judicial examinations, torture is not to be employed with respect to the eight privileged classes; and persons under the age of fifteen or above seventy, as well as those suffering under any bodily infirmity, are exempted; but in all other cases it is allowed and practised. This enactment goes upon the principle of not allowing offenders to be punished, until they acknowledge the fact of which they are accused, the justice of the sentence pronounced against them, and the parental kindness of the ruler in thus inflicting the necessary chastisement. Considering also the utter dereliction of truth, and the consequent want of confidence among the Chinese, the policy of this regulation, whatever may be the justice of it, will be acknowledged.
The laws relative to public works provide, that granaries should be built in every province, supplied with a sufficient store of rice, for the sustenance of the people in time of scarcity; which, being sold at a reduced rate, keeps down the price of grain, and brings the necessaries of life within the reach of the indigent.
This benevolent arrangement not only carries out the idea of parental care, which the Chinese rulers profess to have for their numerous family, but entitles them as much to the appellation of "discreet and wise," as was Joseph in the house of Pharaoh, when he recommended a measure of a similar character to the sovereign of Egypt. The laws relating to this department also require, that the canals, roads, embankments, and bridges, should be kept in due and thorough repair. The Chinese are necessitated, by the circumstances of their country, to pay much attention to the draining and irrigation of their lands. Water, like fire, is with them a good servant but a bad master. Without it they cannot raise their produce or transport their goods; and yet, when their mighty rivers accidentally burst their bounds, or the sea makes any encroachment on their thickly peopled territory, devastation and ruin, with a fearful loss of life, are the immediate consequences. Especial care, therefore, has from the earliest antiquity been taken to prevent inundations; and the individual who first drained the waters of the Yellow River, was raised to the rank of emperor, and almost deified. The labour and expense still bestowed on this department of public service, is scarcely equalled in any other unevangelized country. Some of the embankments are strong and well constructed; and though built centuries ago, still stand the test of time, and prove of incalculable benefit to the surrounding peasantry. Their bridges, over rapid streams and broad arms of the sea, composed of solid blocks of granite, fifteen or twenty feet long, and standing erect amidst the raging tide, bear testimony to the skill and perseverance of those who contrived and completed the design: while the enactments, requiring these to be kept in constant repair, shew that the rulers of China are not altogether indifferent to the welfare of the people. Considering the nature of the present work, it would be impossible to enter more into detail respecting the laws of this singular people, but the slight sketch we have given is sufficient to shew, that the Chinese are not devoid of sagacity, and that they deserve to be classed among civilized nations. A people possessed of written laws, of whatever character, must be considered as a grade above barbarians; but those who descend to the minutiae of legislation, and provide for every possible exigency in the administration of an extensive empire, must have advanced to a stage of improvement, not far inferior to what is witnessed in this western world.
As another proof of their civilization, we may mention the state maintained by the emperor, who dwells in the interior of his splendid palace, secluded from the gaze of the populace, and surrounded by extensive parks and gardens; with the solemn parade of ministers, and the pompous pageantry of processions; which bespeak indeed a sort of barbaric grandeur, but a grandeur delighted in by some of the most powerful European monarchs of the nineteenth century. In order to form some idea of the degree of civilization attained by the Chinese, it may not be unsuitable here to allude to the extent and magnificence of the imperial city, where the lord of one third of the human race holds his court. The capital is divided into two parts, the northern section of which covers an area of twelve, and the southern of fifteen square miles. Within the northern enclosure is the palace, which is the most splendid, as well as the most important part of Peking. According to the Chinese, this is a very superb residence, with "golden walls, and pearly palaces," fit for the abode of so great a monarch: to the unprejudiced eyes of strangers, however, it presents a glittering appearance, with its varnished tiles of brilliant yellow, which, under the rays of the meridian sun, seem to constitute a roof of burnished gold: the gay colours and profuse gilding applied to the interior, give the halls a dazzling glory, while the suite of court yards and apartments, vieing with each other in beauty and magnificence, all contribute to exalt our apprehensions of the gorgeous fabric. We must not expect to find much there that will gratify the taste, or suit the convenience of those accustomed to admire European architecture, and English comfort; but in the estimation of the Chinese, their scolloped roofs, and projecting eaves, and dragon encircling pillars; with their leaf-shaped windows, and circular doors, and fantastic emblems, present more charms than the Gothic and Corinthian buildings, or the curtained and carpeted apartments of modern Europe. "There reigns," says father Hyacinth, "among the buildings of the forbidden city, a perfect symmetry, both in the form and height of the several edifices, and in their relative positions, indicating that they were built upon a regular and harmonious plan."
The grand entrance to the "forbidden city," is by the southern gate, through the central avenue of which the emperor alone is allowed to pass: within this gate is a large court, adorned with bridges, balustrades, pillars, and steps; with figures of lions, and other sculptures, all of fine marble. Beyond this is the "gate of extensive peace," which is a superb building of white marble, one hundred and ten feet high, ascended by five flights of steps, the centre of which is reserved for the emperor. It is here that he receives the congratulations of his officers, who prostate themselves to the ground before the imperial presence, on the new year's day, and the anniversary of the emperor's birth. Two more halls and three flights of steps, lead to the palace of the sovereign, which is called the "tranquil region of heaven," while that of his consort is entitled "the palace of earth's repose;" to keep up the idea of the inseparable connection subsisting, in the Chinese mind, between the powers of nature, and the monarch of China; the latter of whom is, in the estimation of that idolatrous and superstitious people, the representative and counterpart of the former. Into this private retreat of the emperor, no one is allowed to approach, without special leave; and here the great autocrat deliberates upon the affairs of state, or gives audience to those who solicit his favour.
The Russian traveller, Timkowski, represents this as the "loftiest, richest, and most magnificent of all the palaces. In the court before it, is a tower of gilt copper, adorned with a great number of figures, which are beautifully executed. On each side of the tower, is a large vessel, likewise of gilt copper, in which incense is burned, day and night;" doubtless, to flatter the vanity of the imperial inhabitant, who fancies himself a god, though he must die like men. Beyond the residence of the emperor and empress, is the imperial flower-garden, laid out in beautiful walks, and adorned with pavilions, temples, and grottoes; interspersed with sheets of water, and rising rocks, which vary and beautify the scene. Behind this garden, is a library of immense extent, vieing with that of Alexandria, in ancient, or of Paris, in modern times; and, further on, stands the gate of the flower-garden, which constitutes the northern outlet to the forbidden city.
The above comprises the buildings in a direct line between the northern and southern gates. To the east are the council chamber, and a number of princely palaces; with a temple, designed to enshrine the parental tablets of the present imperial family. To the west of the principal line of buildings, stand the hall of pictures, his majesty's printing-office, the principal magazines of the crown, and the female apartments; which fill up this division of the enclosure, and render the whole, one compact and extensive establishment. This magnificent residence, though described in a page or two, is about two miles in circumference, surrounded by walls, thirty feet high, and twelve wide; built of polished red brick, and surrounded by a moat, lined with hewn stone; the whole ornamented with gates and towers, and laid out in a diversified and elaborate manner.
The city, surrounding the imperial residence, is four miles long, and two and a half wide, encircled by walls, and entered by nine gates; which have given to it, the appellation of the "City of Nine Gates." This was the original capital; but since the occupancy of it, by the present dynasty, it has been increased by the addition of another city, larger than the former, and covering an area of fifteen square miles. These two cities are severally called the inner and outer, or the Tartar and Chinese city. In the former of these, directly to the north of the imperial palace, is an artificial mount, the summits of which are crowned with pavilions, and the sides ornamented with walks, and shaded with trees. Game of all kinds enliven the scene, and thousands of birds please the ear, with every variety of song. Corresponding with this mount, is a lake,about a mile and a half long, and one third of a mile broad, crossed by a bridge of nine arches, built of fine white marble. Its banks are ornamented with a variety of trees, and its bosom garnished with the flowers of the water lily; so that in the estimation of Father Hyacinth, "the infinite variety of beauties which the lake presents, constitute it one of the most enchanting spots on earth." In the midst of the lake, is a marble isle, adorned with temples, and surmounted by an obelisk; affording a delightful view of the surrounding gardens. A temple, dedicated to the discoverer of the silk-worm, stands near these gardens, where the empress, and the ladies of the court, attend to the cultivation of silk; in order to encourage a branch of industry, on which China mainly depends for its wealth and elegance. In these gardens, the arrangement is such, that the whole seems the production of nature, rather than the effect of art; and affords a pleasing retreat for those who would retire from the symmetrical disposition of the imperial palace, to enjoy the mildness of natural scenery, in the midst of a dense and crowded capital.
In this division of the city, and nearly fronting the imperial palace, are the courts of the six grand tribunals of the empire, which have been before described; together with the office of the astronomical board, and the royal observatory. At the south-east corner of the northern division of the capital, is the grand national college. At a short distance, is the general arena for literary controversy, where the public examinations, for the capital, are held. The cells for the candidates are numerously disposed round the arena; where many an anxious heart beats high with expectation, and many an aspiring mind is plunged into deep disappointment, when classed with those who fail. Amongst the literary institutions of this great city, may be enumerated a college for the cultivation of the Chinese and Mantchou languages, and one for the study of the Thibetan tongue. A Mahomedan mosque, with a Russian church, and a Roman Catholic temple, are all enclosed within the walls of the imperial city; but all these edifices are surpassed in splendour by the many shrines of idolatry which abound; among the rest may be specified the "white pagoda temple," so called, on account of a white obelisk, erected in honour of the founder of Buddhism, the scab of whose forehead, produced by frequent prostrations is still preserved and venerated as a holy relic.
The southern division of the city, where the Chinese principally reside, is the grand emporium of all the merchandize that finds its way to the capital, and tends to ornament and gratify the adherents of the court. Here, relieved from the strict discipline that prevails in the palace, the citizens give themselves up to business, or dissipation; encouraged and led on by voluptuous courtiers, who have nothing to do, but to display their grandeur, or to please their appetites. There is an immense deal of business done in this southern city, and the broad street which divides it from north to south, is constantly thronged by passengers and tradesmen. Chinese shopkeepers are in the habit of advertising their wares, by long projecting signs, hung out in front of their houses, painted in the gayest colours; while the bustling crowd, perpetually thronging the principal avenues, contributes to enliven and animate the scene. In the southern division of the city, is an enclosure, about two miles in circumference, where the emperor and his great officers annually go through the ceremony of ploughing and sowing the seed; in order to set an example to the subjects of this vast empire, and to encourage agriculture, from which the greatest part of their support is derived. Notwithstanding these vacant spaces in the city of Pekin, the population is so dense where the citizens reside, that the number of inhabitants cannot be much less than two millions. Such, then, is the seat of government, and such the palaces and buildings it contains; worthy the metropolis of a great and civilized country.