Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies

by Louis Richard

L. Richard's

(夏之時)

Comprehensive Geography

of the

Chinese Empire

and

Dependencies

中國坤輿詳誌

Translated into English, revised and enlarged by

M. Kennelly, S. J.

(甘沛樹)

Shanghai

Tusewei Press

1908

All rights reserved.

 

TO

ALL THOSE

WHO TAKE INTEREST

IN THE PROGRESS, WELFARE AND PROSPERITY

OF CHINA

THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED.

 

PREFACE.

Origin of this Work. — Richard's "Géographie de l'Empire de Chine" published in 1905, by the T'usewei Press, Shanghai, was so appreciated in the East and at home, that an Enghsh Edition of the work was immediately requested. The Chinese Legation in London, Officials, Railway-prospectors, Merchants, Travellers, Missionaries, and all who take a special interest in China and Things Chinese, have at various times urged the necessity of the work, and augured that it would be of valuable service to the Public. The Translation, undertaken and carried out amidst the drudgery of class-work with Chinese pupils, remote from English surroundings, and without the assistance of the valuable home libraries, was unavoidably slow. As the work proceeded, it was remarked that the various reforms adopted by China, the new status of the Manchurian Provinces, and the progress of events in the Far East would require some recasting of the original. The new part has not been thrown into the shape of additional notes, but has been welded into the old paragraphs, with as little disturbance as possible of the order of the original. The present English Edition is thus enlarged and revised, bringing all information, administrative, statistical and economic, thoroughly up to-date.

Plan of the Work. — This Work given a Physical and Political description of China and Dependencies. The Physical part groups all facts around the 3 natural Regions or Great Basins of China : 1°. the Northern, around the Yellow River; 2°. the Central, around the Yangtze-kiang; and 3°. the Southern, around the Si-kiang or West River. A general outline of each region precedes the description of the Provinces. Each Province is the object of a particular study, in which its area, population and boundaries, its aspect and characteristics, its mountains and rivers, its geology, its fauna and flora, its climate, its agricultural and mineral resources, its people, race and language, its principal towns, its industry and commerce, its land-routes and waterways are minutely and methodically exposed.

The Coast-line, which extends along 6 Provinces of the Empire: Chihli, Shantung, Kiangsu, Chêkiang, Fokien and Kwangtung, is treated in a special chapter. This has the advantage of combining in a general study important notions bearing on winds, currents and tides, which could not be easily connected with the study of each individual Province. The description of the coast-line proceeds from North to South, and follows the above mentioned order of the Provinces. For fuller details, the Reader is referred to the Index at the end of this work.

The Political part describes the Government and Administration, the various Religions, the Army and Navy, the Educational system, Agriculture, Industry and Mining, the Railway, Postal and Telegraph departments. In view of the growing intercourse with other countries, and the expansion of Foreign Trade, the chapter on this subject will be found specially useful, and no pains have been spared to enhance its value by full statistical tables. Appendix II (at the close of the volume) embodies the latest Returns for the year 1906.

A brief account of the Rise and Progress of the Empire, and of its International Relations, is appended to this part. It is not a dry story of kings and wars, but is intended to show the development of the Nation, in its manifestations good as well as evil. It will also afford a deep insight into the national mind and life, so essential for the proper understanding of Things Chinese. The collection of dates cannot fail to be of service to all Readers, and must be correlated with events and facts described in the Physical part of the work.

Each chapter is followed by a library of references, and a list of standard Authors (French, Enghsh, German), many of whom are household words in connection with Chinese history, literature and scholarly attainments. To all, the Translator is much indebted for valuable information, and begs hereby to tender acknowledgement.

A full list of the Cities, Towns and Open Ports, in the 18 Provinces and outlying Dependencies, complete the work. Every proper name, romanised in English, is followed by its equivalent Chinese pictograph, a novel and valuable improvement which will help to avoid confusion in words so similar in sound.

The Index has been carefully prepared with the twofold purpose of securing completeness, and rendering research expeditious. The names of Authors and the titles of books are printed in italics, while figures in heavy type indicate the particular place where a subject is principally treated.

China is at present making every effort to take her place in the comity of Nations. Her Administration and Army are being re-organized, Schools are multiplied, Railways are opened, Postal work is improved, the opium evil is to be suppressed, and a Constitutional Government is promised to the Country in the near future. Other improvements, in Finance, in Law, in National unity, will follow in due time. This awakening and re-shaping of the country cannot but interest the Great Nations of the world. Richard's Comprehensive Geography will help much to make China and the Chinese people better known. Should it also promote mutual friendship between East and West, it will have fulfilled a great need, and we hope be welcomed by all classes of Readers.

Corrections and suggestions will be thankfully received by the Translator, who expresses his many obligations to his friends for their valuable assistance and encouragement in the completion of this work.

M. Kennelly, S.J.

Sicawei College, Shanghai
18 December, 1907.

SYSTEM OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

In the transliteration of Chinese proper names, the Nanking kwanhwa or Nan kwanhwa 南官話 (Southern mandarin dialect) has been adopted preferably to the Pekingese, spoken only at the Capital and in a small portion of Chihli and Honan Provinces. The Nankingese discriminates between the initials si and hsi (as in 信 sin, a letter, a note; and 行 hsing, to go), tsi and ki (as in 濟 tsi, to aid; and 記 ki, to remember), which are so bewilderingly confused in the Pekingese. The Nankingese is spoken by two-thirds of the whole population of the Empire, and is everywhere understood. Its syllabary is richer than the Pekingese, its pronunciation purer (正音 chêng yin, correct or standard pronunciation, as the Chinese say) and better, and being now largely adopted by the Postal and Telegraph Administrations of China, it is most likely to outlive its competitors.

In the working out of details, familiar spellings are maintained, as Peking, Foochow, Amoy, Canton, Chefoo, Soochow, Fokien, Kansu etc. The vowels have their Italian or fixed sounds. The aspirates, a most essential element of the Chinese language, are indicated by an inverted comma (thus ‘), and the short abrupt final vowels by the addition of h (as in 得 teh, to attain). In all instances, the same sound is ever represented by the same phonetical equivalents. The initials si and hsi, ts, tsi, k and ch, sü and hsü have been carefully distinguished. The compound consonants : hw, kw, lw, sw, shw, sz, ts and tz, recently adopted by the Postal Service, have been admitted and followed. The initial nasal ng, followed by a or e, is maintained, as its omission is considered unscientific and based on mere convention. The final nasals an and en; ang and eng, ung and êng, üan and üen, so generally confounded by English writers, have been represented by more exact phonetic equivalents. In the alphabetical list, the aspirated characters follow immediately the unaspirated, and these latter are followed in turn by those of the short abrupt final vowel sounds. Throughout the work, every proper name, romanised in English, has beside it its equivalent Chinese character or pictograph, a valuable improvement, which will help to avoid confusion especially in words which are similar in sound.

It is thus hoped that this system, which embodies the best elements of Morrison, Williams, Wade, Giles and of the recent Postal List, will meet with the approval of all competent Sinologues, and go far in solving the yet unsettled question of uniformity, at least so far as the English language is concerned. M^r H. B. Morse, the learned Statistical Secretary of the Imperial Maritime Customs, to whom the work has been communicated as the sheets left the press, appreciated its system of orthography in the following terms : "as scientific romanisation, I fully approve of your system, and I have serious fault only with your ngan." (Letter to the Author, 13 August, 1907).

Values of vowels, consonants, diphthongs, aspirates and nasals, adopted in this Work.

The Mandarin dialect lacks the initial letters b, d, g, q, r, v, x and z; and all words end by a vowel, semi-vowel, n or ng.

Vowels and diphthongs.

a. — as in father.

ai. — as in aye.

ao. — (final) as ow in how, but prolonged.

e. — as in men, yet.

ê. — as the vowel sound in earth.

eh. — short and abrupt.

ei. — as in height, or i in sigh (many English writers confound ai and ei).

eu. — as ou in souse (some write it ou or ow).

eul. — as ll in hull or skull, with an approximation to rl as in hurl. (English and American writers have transliterated this sound in the most bewildering manner, thus :

• urh (Morrison).
• ’rh (Williams).
• êrh (Wade, Giles).
• u̇r (Jenkings)
• rh (Edkins).
• rï (Ballard).

i. — as in pin.

ia. — as ya in yard.

iao. — i and ao sounded, but slightly coalescing into one second.

ie. — as in the Italian word siesta.

ieh. — shorter than ie.

ih. — short and abrupt, as the voewl sound in chick.

in. — as the vowel sound in chin, pin.

ing. — as in king, sing.

io. — i as y in yawn.

ioh. — short and abrupt.

iu. — as ew, in pew, yew.

o. — as o in long.

oh. — short and abrupt.

ow. — as ow in how (see eu).

u. — as oo in too, fool.

ü. — as u in abuse.

uh. — short and abrupt.

ui. — u as in too; i as in height, both slightly coalescing into one.

Consonants, aspirates and nasals.

The aspirate is about the same sound as initial h in English, but often somewhat stronger. In English, the aspirate after a surd is a neglected sound, while in Chinese it is a substitute for the lack of the sonants b, d, g hard and g soft. The Mandarin dialect has 9 aspirates : the initial simple consonants k, p and t, and the compound consonants ch, chw, kw, shw, ts and tz.

A nasal sound is performed by closing the lips and causing the voice to pass into the nose.

ch. — (always initial) as in church, chair.

ch‘. — the same sound aspirated.

chw. — as in chew.

f. — as in fat, find.

h. — as in hang.

hs. — (always initial), a sibilant sound as sh in shin, she.

hw. — as wh in what, which.

j. — as in the French jaune, jamais.

k. — as in king.

k‘. — the same sound aspirated (in some places softened).

l. — as in lamp, land.

m. — as in man.

n. — as in not.

p. — as in pot.

p‘. — the same sound aspirated.

s. — as in sand.

sh. — as in shall, shut.

sz. — a peculiar sibilant, as if followed by a quiescent vowel.

sze. — an imperfect vowel sound; e final as in table (Wade renders this sound by ssŭ. Williams by sz')

t. — as in top.

t‘. — the same sound aspirated.

ts. — as in wits.

ts‘. — the same sound aspirated.

tze. — an imperfect vowel sound; e final as in table (Wade and Giles render this sound by tzŭ; Williams by tsz').

w. — as in went, winter.

 

CONTENTS.

 

INTRODUCTION. 1-6.

Geography. Formation of the Earth. Modifications of the crust of the Earth. Formation of new lands, 1. — Igneous and sedimentary rocks. Formation of the soil of China, 2. — China in the various geological periods. Formation of coal and sandstone. Modifications wrought on the surface. Volcanic action and eruptions. Present geological action. Predominant rocks of the Chinese soil. New modifications wrought on the surface of China, 3. — Flora and Fauna of the first ages. Primitive origin of the Chinese. Pre-Chinese races. First Chinese Settlers, 4. — Actual China. Situation. Divisions. Boundaries. Area and Population. Reasons of the unequal distribution of inhabitants. Difficulty of a collective view. Study of the 18 Provinces, 5. — References. 6.

BOOK I.

CHINA PROPER
or
The Eighteen Provinces.

General Notions, 7-20.

Names applied to the Country and People. Situation. Boundaries, 7. — Shape. Area and Population, 8. — Geological constitution. Orography or Mountain Systems, 10. — Historical or Sacred Mountains. Plains, 13. — Climate, 14. — Hydrography, 15. — Lakes. Coast-line. Fauna and Flora, 16. — Diffusion of the Population. 18. — Present Division of China. The Three Regions or Basins, 19. — References, 20.

SECTION 1. THE NORTHERN REGION, 21-89.

CHAPTER I.

Valleys of the Peh-ho and of the Hwang-ho, 21-30.

Characteristics of this Region, 21. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological constitution. Loess or Yellow lands, 22. — Alluvial lands. Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 23. — The Hwang-ho, 24. — Variations in its Course, 27. — Flow, 28. — The Great Wall, 29. — A few other particulars concerning the Northern Region, 29. — References, 30.

CHAPTER II.

Region of the Upper Hwang-ho (Kansu and Shensi), 31-46.

Kansu and Shensi Provinces, 31. — 1º. Kansu: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 32. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 33. — Climate. Hydrography, 35. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language, 36. — Cities and Principal Centres, 37. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 38. — 2º Shensi: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 39. — Geological constitution. Orography, 40. — Climate. Hydrography, 41. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language, 42. — Cities and Principal Centres, 43. — Industry and Commerce, 44. — Highways of communication, 45, — References, 46.

CHAPTER III.

Region of the Middle Hwang-ho (Shans and Honan), 47-64.

Shansi and Shensi Provinces, 47. — 1º. Shansi: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries, Capital. Other Prefectures, 48. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 50. — Climate. Hydrography, 51. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 52. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 54. — 2º. Honan: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 56. — Geological constitution. Orography, 57. — Hydrography, 59. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 61. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 62. — References, 63.

CHAPTER IV.

Region of The Lower Hwang-ho and of the Peh-ho (Chihli and Shantung). 65-89.

Chihli and Shantung Provinces, 65. — 1º. Chihli : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capitals. Other Prefectures, 66. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 67. — Climate. Hydrography, 69. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 70. -Population (People). Cities and Principal Centres, 71. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports, 78. — 2º. Shantung: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 79. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 80. — Climate. Hydrography, 82. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People. Language, Cities and Principal Centres, 83. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 86. Open Ports. Notes, 87. — References, 88-89.

SECTION II. — THE CENTRAL REGION, 90-166.

CHAPTER I.

Valleys of the Yangtze and of the Hwai-ho, 90-103.

Characteristics of this Region, 90. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological constitution, 91. — Orography, 92. — Climate. Hydrography. The Yangtze River (name, course, changes of, distance of Ports on from seacoast, Navigation of, Steamboat Companies trading on), 93. — Further particulars regarding this Central Region, 101. — References, 102-103.

CHAPTER II.

Region of the Upper Yangtze (Szechw'an), 104-119.

Szechw'an Province, 104. — Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 105. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution, 106. Orography, 107. — Climate. Hydrography, 109. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 111. — Population (People, Races). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 112. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 116. — Open Ports. Notes, 117. — References, 118.

CHAPTER III.

Region of the Middle Yangtze (Hupeh and Hunan), 120-138.

Hupeh and Hunan Provinces, 120. — 1º. Hupeh: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 121. — Geological constitution. Orography, 122. — Climate. Hydrography, 123. — Lakes. Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 124. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 125. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 129. — Open Ports. 130. — 2º. Hunan: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 131. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 132. — Hydrography, 133. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 134. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 135. — Industry and Commerce, 136. — Highways of communication. Open Ports, 137. — References, 138.

CHAPTER IV.

Region of the Lower Yangtze (Kiangsi, Nganhwei, Kiangsu), 139-166.

Kiangsi. Nganhwei and Kiangsu Provinces, 139. — 1º. Kiangsi: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 140. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 141. — Hydrography. 142. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 142. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 143. — Industry and Commerce, 145. — Highways of communication. Open Ports. Note. References, 145. — 2º. Nganhwei: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 146. — Geological constitution. Orography. Climate, 147. — Hydrography. Lakes, 148. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 149. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 150. — Industry and Commerce, Highways of communication, 131. — Open Ports, 152. — 3º. Kiangsu: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 153. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 154. — Hydrography, 155. — Fauna and Flora, 156 — Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population People. Language, 157. — Cities and Principal Centres, 158. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 163. — Open Ports, Notes, 164. — References, 165-166.

SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION, 167-237.

CHAPTER 1.

The Si-kiang Valley and the Coast-rivers of Fokien and Chekiang, 167-173.

Characteristics of this Region, 167. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological constitution. Orography, 168. — Climate. Hydrography, 170. — References, 173.

CHAPTER II.

Region of the Upper Si-kiang (Yünnan and Kweichow), 174-193.

Yünnan and Kweichow Provinces, 174. — 1º, Yünnan: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 175. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution, 177. — Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 178. — Fanna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 180. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal centres, 181. — Industry and Commerce, 182. — Open Ports. Note, 183. — 2º. Kweichow: Area. Populatiou. Name. Boundaries. Capital, Other Prefectures, 184. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 185. — Climate. Hydrography, 187. — Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 187. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 188. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 190. — Note. References, 191-193.

CHAPTER III.

Region of the Middle and Lower Si-kiang (Kwangsi and Kwangtung), 194-216.

Kwangsi and Kwangtung Provinces, 194. — 1º. Kwangsi: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 195. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 196. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 198. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 199. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of connnunication. Open Ports, 200. Note, 201. — 2º. Kwangtung: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 202. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 203. — Climate. Hydrography, 204. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 206. — Population (People). Language. Towns and Principal Centres, 207. — Note (Hongkong, Macao, Kwang-chow-wan). Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 211. — Open Ports, 212. — References, 213-216.

CHAPTER IV.

The Coast Region (Fokien and Chêkiang), 217-237.

Fokien and Chekiang Provinces, 217. — 1º. Fokien: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 218. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography. Climate, 219. — Hydrography, 220. — Fauna and Flora, Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 221. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 222. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 225. — Open Ports. Note, 226. — 2º. Chêkiang: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 227. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 228. — Climate, Hydrography, 229. — Fauna and Flora, Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 231. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 232. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports. Note, 235. — References, 236-237.

SECTION IV. — THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA, 238-294.

Preliminary observation, 238. — 1º. General Notions: Extent of the coast-line. Its configuration. Seas, 289. — General remarks on the seas of China (the Yellow Sea, Eastern China Sea, South-China Sea), 241. — Nature of the coast, 242. — Coast winds. Winter and Summer Monsoons, 243. — Cyclones. Continental landstorms. Typhoons, 215. — Fogs. Lighthouses, buoys and beacons, 246. — Tides, 249. — 2º. The Coast of Chihli: The Poh-hai. Gulfs. Islands, Ice, 251. — Winds. Nature of the Coast. Ports, 252. — 3º. The Coast of Shantung: A. The N. W. Coast. B. The Miao-tao Islands, 253. — C. The Coast of the Shantung Promontory. Bays. Capes, 254. — Islands. Ice. Wind. Tide. Nature of Coast. Lighthouses, 255. — Coast-towns (Chefoo, Weihaiwei, T'singtao), 256. — 4º. The Coast of Kiangsu: A. The Coast to the N. of the Yangtze. B. The mouth of the Yangtze and the Port of Shanghai, 261. — Islands and sand-banks. Channels, 262. — Lighthouses. Tides, 263. — Woosung Inner and Outer Bars, 264. — Height of water on Woosung Bars, 265. — Shanghai (Historical sketch. Population. Industries and Manufactures. Trade. Shipping and Tonnage. Table of Shipping. Inland Navigation), 266. — C. The Coast to the S. of the Yangtze, 271. — 5º. The Coast of Chêkiang: 1º. Bay of Hangchow and its barrier of Islands, 272. — Lighthouses. 2º. Coast of Chékiang, S. of Hangchow Bay, 273. — Bays, 274. — Islands. Lighthouses. Coast-towns, 275. — 6º. The Coasl of Fokien: Bays. Islands, 276. — Lighthouses. Coast-towns, 278. — 7º. The Coast of Kwangtung: Bays. Islands, 281. — Tides. Currents. Lighthouses, 283. — Sea-ports (Hongkong, Canton, Macao, Kwangchowwan), 284. Time-zones on the Coast of China. Note, 292. — References, 293-294.

SECTION V. — POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY, 295-485

CHAPTER I.

Government and Administration. — Revenue and Expenditure. — Imperial Maritime Customs. — Army and Navy, 295-338.

1º. Government and Administration: The Emperor, 295. — The Empress. Manchu Administration, 296. — Central Government, 297. — Provincial Administration, 301. — Provinces of China and their Capitals, 304. — Territorial Sub-divisions of the Provinces, 306. — Number of territorial divisions in the 18 Provinces, 312. — General appellation of Officials. The Yamên, 313. — Rank and degrees of Officials. Hereditary reward for Merit, 314. — 2º. Revenue and Expenditure: Chinese Currency, 316. — Cash. Sycee. Various kinds of Taels, 317. — Gold equivalent of Haikwan Tael (1870-1906), 319. — Necessity of uniform Currency, 320. — Revenue of the Empire. Taxes (land-tax, salt-tax, likin, native Custom dues, opium-tax, miscellaneous), 321. — Expenditure of the Empire. Foreign Debt, 324. — 3º. Imperial Maritime Customs: Origin and development. Organization, 325. — Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326. — Revenue collected by I. M. Customs, 327. — Apportionment of Revenue between Foreign and Home Trade. Ports where trade is most important, 328. — 4º. Army and Navy: Manchu or Imperial Army (The Eight Banners), 329. — Provincial Forces or Army of the Green Standard, 330. — Irregulars or Braves. The New Chinese Army scheme, 331. — Reorganization of the Army, 332. — Effectives of the Provincial Army down to 1904. Navy, 333. — Arsenals and dockyards. Ports, 334. — References, 335-338.

CHAPTER II.

Population (People). — Languages. — Religions. — Education, 339-392.

1º. Population (People), 339. — Physical and moral characteristics of the Chinese Race, 340. — Aboriginal tribes and remnants of former Races: Lolos, 342. — Miaotze, Ikias, Hakkas, 343. – Hoklos, Yao or Yu tribe. Sai. Si or Li tribe, 341. — Mosus (Musus). Lisus. Minkias. Sifans. Distribution of the Population, 345. — Foreign (Commercial) Population in China, 346. — 2º. Languages: The Chinese Language, 347. — Mandarin. Varieties of Mandarin. Dialects (number of persons conversing in each), 318. — Characteristics of the Chinese Langnage. Chinese writing, 349. — Dialects and writing of the Aborigines. Chinese Literature, 350. — 3º. Religions: Confucianism. Taoism, 351. — Buddhism, 352. — Ancestor worship. Shamanism, 353. — Catholicism. Catholic Missions in China, 354. — Protestantism, 358. — Protestant Missions to China, 359. — Mahomedanism, 362. — Judaism, 363. —