Constitution of the Polish People's Republic (1952)

For other versions of this work, see Constitution of the Polish People's Republic.

Preamble

The Polish People's Republic is a republic of the working people.

The Polish People's Republic carries on the most glorious progressive traditions of the Polish Nation and gives effect to the liberation ideals of the working masses.

The Polish working people, under the leadership of the heroic working class, and on the basis of the alliance between workers and peasants, fought for many decades for the liberation from national enslavement imposed upon the Nation by the Prussian, Austrian and Russian conquerors and colonisers, just as they fought for the abolition of exploitation by the Polish capitalists and landlords.

During the Occupation, the Polish Nation waged an unflinching heroic fight against the murderous Nazi invasion. The historic victory of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics over fascism liberated Polish soil, enabled the Polish working people to take power into their own hands, and established conditions for the national re-birth of Poland within new and just frontiers. The Recovered Territories were restored to Poland forever.

By carrying out the memorable directives of the Manifesto of the Polish Committee of National Liberation of July 22nd, 1944, and by developing the principles laid down in the programme of that Manifesto, the People's Authority — thanks to the selfless and creative efforts of the Polish working people in the fight against the bitter resistance of the remnants of the old capitalist-landlord system — has accomplished great social changes. As a result of revolutionary struggles and transformations, the power of the capitalists and landlords has been overthrown, a State of People's Democracy has been firmly established, and a new social system, in accord with the interests and aspirations of the great majority of the people, is taking shape and growing in strength.

The legal principles of this system are laid down by the Constitution of the Polish People's Republic.

The basis of the People's Authority in Poland to-day is the alliance between the working class and the working peasants. In this alliance, the leading role belongs to the working class — the leading class of the people, the class based on the revolutionary gains of the Polish and international working class movement, and on the historic experience of victorious socialist building in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the first State of workers and peasants.

Implementing the will of the Polish Nation, the Legislative Seym of the Republic of Poland, in accordance with its purpose, solemnly adopts the present Constitution as the fundamental law by which the Polish Nation and all organs of authority of the Polish working people shall be guided, in order:

To consolidate the People's State as the fundamental power assuring to the Polish Nation the highest degree of prosperity, its independence and sovereignty;

To accelerate the political, economic and cultural development of the Fatherland, and the growth of its resources;

To strengthen the patriotic feelings, the unity and solidarity of the Polish Nation in its struggle still further to improve social conditions, to eliminate completely the exploitation of man

by man, and to put into effect the great ideals of Socialism;

To strengthen friendship and co-operation between nations, on the 'basis of the alliance and brotherhood which to-day link the Polish Nation with the peace-loving nations of the world for the attainment of their common aim — to make aggression impossible and to consolidate world peace.

Chapter 1. Political Structure

Article 1.

1. The Polish People's Republic is a State of People's Democracy.

2. In the Polish People's Republic the power belongs to the working people of town and country.

Article 2.

1. The working people exercise the authority of the State through their representatives elected to the Seym of the Polish People's Republic, and to the People's Councils, on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.

2. The people's representatives in the Seym of the Polish People's Republic, and in the People's Councils, are responsible to their constituents and may be recalled by them.

Article 3.

The Polish People's Republic:

1. safeguards the achievements of the Polish working people of town and country and secures their power and freedom against forces hostile to the people;

2. secures the development and continuous growth of the productive forces of the country through its industrialisation and through elimination of economic, technical and cultural backwardness;

3. organises a planned economy on the basis of undertakings constituting social property;

4. places restrictions on, gradually ejects and abolishes those classes of society which live by exploiting the workers and peasants;

5. ensures a continual rise in the level of the prosperity, health and cultural standards of the people;

6. secures the development of national culture in all its aspects.

Article 4.

1. The laws of the Polish People's Republic express the interests and the will of the working people.

2. Strict compliance with the laws of the Polish People's Republic is the fundamental duty of every organ of the State and of every citizen.

3. All organs of State power and administration act on the basis of law.

Article 5.

All organs of State power and administration are supported in the exercise of their functions by the conscious and active cooperation of the broadest masses of the people, and they are bound:

1. to account to the Nation for their work;

2. to examine carefully and take into consideration, in accordance with existing legislation, reasonable proposals, complaints and wishes of the citizens;

3. to interpret to the working people the basic aims and guiding principles of the policy of the People's Authority in the various fields of State, economic and cultural activity.

Article 6.

The armed forces of the Polish People's Republic safeguard the sovereignty and independence of the Polish Nation, its security and peace.

Chapter 2. Social and Economic Structure

Article 7.

1. The Polish People's Republic promotes, on the basis of socialised means of production, trade, communications and credit, the economic and cultural life of the country in accordance with the national economic plan and, in particular, through the expansion of Socialist State industry, which is the decisive factor in the transformation of social and economic relations.

2.The State has the monopoly of foreign trade.

3. The principal aim of the planned economic policy of the Polish People's Republic is the constant development of the productive forces of the country, the continuous raising of the standard of living of the working people, and the strengthening of the power, defence capacity and independence of the Fatherland.

Article 8.

The national wealth, that is, the mineral deposits, waters, State forests, mines, roads, rail, water and air transport, means of communication, banks, State industrial establishments, State farms and State machine stations, State commercial enterprises and communal enterprises and utilities, is the subject of special care and protection by the State and by all citizens.

Article 9.

1. The Polish People's Republic strengthens, according to plan, the economic bond between town and country founded on brotherly co-operation between workers and peasants.

2. For this purpose, the Polish People's Republic secures a continuous increase in the output of State industry, serving to meet the allround needs of the rural population in their capacity as producers and consumers; at the same time exerting a planned influence on the constant growth of production of agricultural commodities which supplies industry with raw materials and the urban population with foodstuffs.

Article 10.

1. The Polish People's Republic protects the individual farms of working peasants and assists them with a view to safeguarding them against capitalist exploitation, to increasing production, to raising the technical level of agriculture and to improving their welfare.

2. The Polish People's Republic gives special support and all-round aid to the co-operative farms set up, on the basis of voluntary membership, as forms of collective economy. By applying methods of the most efficient collective cultivation and mechanised work, collective farming enables the working peasants to reach a turning point in production, and contributes to the complete elimination of exploitation in the countryside and to a rapid and considerable improvement in the level of its prosperity and culture.

3. The principal forms of State support and help for co-operative farms are the State machine stations, which make it possible to employ modem technology; and State credits on easy terms.

Article 11.

The Polish People's Republic promotes the development of various forms of the co-operative movement in town and country and gives it every help in the fulfilment of its tasks, while extending special care and protection to co-operative property, as constituting social property.

Article 12.

The Polish People's Republic recognises and protects, on the basis of existing laws, individual property and the right to inherit land, buildings and other means of production belonging to peasants, craftsmen and persons engaged in domestic handicrafts.

Article 13.

The Polish People's Republic guarantees to citizens full protection of personal property and the right to inherit such property.

Article 14.

1. Work is the right, the duty and a matter of honour for every citizen. By their work, by the observance of work discipline, by work emulation and the perfecting of methods of work, the working people of town and country add to the strength and power of the Fatherland, raise the level of prosperity of the people and expedite the full realisation of the socialist system.

2. Work champions enjoy the respect of the whole nation.

3. The Polish People's Republic gives increasing practical effect to the principle: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his work".

Chapter 3. The Supreme Organs of State Authority

Article 15.

1. The highest organ of State authority is the Seym of the Polish People's Republic.

2. The Seym, which is the highest spokesman of the will of the working people of town and country, realises the sovereign rights of the Nation.

3. The Seym passes laws and exercises control over the functioning of other organs of State authority and administration.

Article 16.

1. Deputies to the Seym are elected by the citizens in electoral districts, in the proportion of one Deputy to 60,000 inhabitants.

2. The validity of the election of a Deputy is confirmed by the Seym.

3. No deputy may be either prosecuted or arrested, without the consent of the Seym, and when the Seym is not in session, without the consent of the Council of State.

Article 17.

1. The Seym meets in sessions. The sessions of the Seym are convened by the Council of State at least twice a year. The Council of State is also bound to convene a session on a written motion by one-third of the total number of Deputies.

2. The first session of a newly elected Seym must be convened within a period of one month after the date of the elections.

Article 18.

1. The Seym elects from among its members a Chairman, Deputy Chairmen and committees.

2. The Chairman or his deputy presides over the debates and supervises the course of the work of the Seym.

3. The debates of the Seym are open to the public. The Seym may vote the holding of a secret meeting if the interests of the State require it.

4. The order of work of the Seym, the nature and number of committees, are defined by rules of procedure adopted by the Seym.

Article 19.

1. The Seym adopts the national economic plans for a period of a number of years.

2. The Seym adopts every year the State budget.

Article 20.

1. The right to propose legislation is vested in the Council of State, the Government and the Deputies.

2. Laws passed by the Seym are signed by the President of the Council of State and its Secretary. Laws are published in the Journal of Laws by order of the President of the Council of State.

Article 21.

The Seym may appoint a Commission to examine a specified matter. The terms of reference and the procedure of the Commission are deter mined by the Seym.

Article 22.

The Chairman of the Council of Ministers or individual Ministers are bound to give an answer within seven days, to a question put by a Deputy.

Article 23.

1. The Seym is elected for a term of four years.

2. The Council of State orders the holding of elections to the Seym not later than one month before the expiry of the term of office of the Seym, the date of elections to be fixed on a work free day within two months after the expiry of .the term of office of the Seym.

Article 24.

1. At its first sitting, the Seym elects from among its members the Council of State, consisting of:

the President of the Council of State, four Vice-Presidents,

the Secretary of the Council of State, nine Members.

2. The Chairman and Deputy Chairmen of the Seym may be elected to the Council of State as Vice Presidents or as Members.

3. After the expiry of the term of office of the Seym, the Council of State acts until the election of a Council of State by the newly elected Seym.

Article 25.

1. The Council of State:

i. orders the holding of elections to the Seym;

ii. convenes sessions of the Seym;

iii. lays down universally binding interpretation. of laws;

iv. issues decrees having the force of law;

v. appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives of the Polish People's Republic in other States;

vi. receives letters of credence and of recall of diplomatic representatives of other States accredited to the Council of State;

vii. ratifies and denounces international treaties;

viii. appoints to civilian and military posts specified by law;

ix. awards orders and decorations, and confers titles of honour;

x. exercises the right of pardon;

xi. exercises other functions vested in the Council of State by the Constitution or assigned to it by law.

2. The Council of State is accountable to the Seym for all its activities.

3. The Council of State acts as a body.

4. The Council of State is represented by its President or his Deputy.

Article 26.

1. In the intervals between the sessions of the Seym, the Council of State issues decrees having the force of law. The Council of State submits its decrees for approval to the next session of the Seym.

2. Decrees issued by the Council of State are signed by the President of the Council of State and its Secretary. Decrees are published in the Journal of Laws by order of the President of the Council of State.

Article 27.

The Council of State exercises ultimate supervision over the People's Councils. Specific powers of the Council of State in this respect are determined by law.

Article 28.

1. A decision concerning the declaration of a state of war may be adopted only in the event of armed aggression having been committed against the Polish People's Republic, or if, in pursuance of international agreements, the necessity of common defence against aggression should arise. Such a decision is voted by the Seym or, if the Seym is not in session, by the Council of State.

2. The Council of State may, should considerations of the defence or security of the State so require, proclaim martial law in parts or in the entire territory of the Polish People's Republic. For similar reasons the Council of State may proclaim partial or general mobilisation.

Chapter 4. The Supreme Organs of State Administration

Article 29.

1. The Seym appoints and recalls the Government of the Polish People's Republic — the Council of Ministers or its individual members.

2. In the intervals between sessions of the Seym, 'the Council of State, on the motion of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, appoints and recalls members of the Council of Ministers. The Council of State submits its decisions for approval to the next session of the Seym.

Article 30.

1. The Council of Ministers is the supreme executive and administrative organ of State Authority.

2. The Council of Ministers is responsible and accountable to the Seym tor its work, and when the Seym is not in session, to the Council of State.

Article 31.

The Council of Ministers consists of:

the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, who presides,

the Vice-Chairmen of the Council of Ministers,

the Chairmen of such Commissions and Committees as are specified by law, and fulfil the functions of the highest organs of State administration.

Article 32.

The Council of Ministers:

1. co-ordinates the activities of Ministries and other organs under its jurisdiction and gives directives as to their work;

2. adopts yearly and submits to the Seym the State budget estimates, adopts and submits to the Seym the draft of the national economic plan for a period of a number of years;

3. adopts the yearly national economic plans;

4. ensures the execution of laws;

5. supervises the execution of the national economic plan and of the State budget;

6. presents to the Seym an annual report on the execution of the State budget;

7. ensures the protection of public order, of the interests of State and of the rights of citizens;

8. in pursuance of laws and in order to give them effect, issues regulations, adopts decisions and supervises their execution;

9. exercises general guidance in the sphere of relations with other States;

10. exercises general guidance regarding the defence capacity of the country and the organisation of the Armed Forces of the Polish People's Republic, and establishes the annual contingent of citizens to be called up for military service;

11. directs the work of the Praesidia of the People's Councils.

Article 33.

1. Ministers direct specified branches of State administration. The sphere of competence of Ministers is determined by law.

2. Ministers issue orders and regulations in persuance of laws and for the execution of laws.

3. The Council of Ministers may rescind an order or a regulation issued by a Minister.

Chapter 5. The Local Organs of State Authority

Article 34.

1. The organs of State authority in rural communities, in towns, in boroughs of larger towns, in districts and voivodeships are the People's Councils.

2. The People's Councils are elected by the population for a term of three years.

Article 35.

The People's Councils express the will of the working people, and develop their creative initiative and activity in order to increase the strength, prosperity and culture of the nation.

Article 36.

The People's Councils strengthen the links between the State authority and working people of town and country, drawing increasing numbers of the working people into participation in governing the State.

Article 37.

The People's Councils direct, within the limits of their jurisdiction, economic, social and cultural activities, linking local requirements with the general tasks of the State.

Article 38.

The People's Councils take constant care of the everyday needs and interests of the population, combat any manifestations of arbitrary and bureaucratic attitude towards citizens, exercise and promote social supervision over the activities of offices, enterprises, establishments and institutions.

Article 39.

The People's Councils ensure the maintenance of public order and watch over the observance of | the people's rule of law, protect social property, safeguard the rights of citizens and co-operate in strengthening the defence capacity and security of the State.

Article 40.

The People's Councils fully exploit all local resources and possibilities for the general economic and cultural development of the area, for meeting to an increasing extent the supply and services' needs of the population, as well as for the expansion of communal institutions and facilities connected with public services, education, culture, sanitation and sport.

Article 41.

The People's Councils adopt local economic plans and local budgets.

Article 42.

1. The People's Councils meet in sessions.

2. The Praesidia elected by the People's Councils are the executive and administrative organs of those Councils.

3. The Praesidium of a People's Council is responsible to the People's Council by which it has been elected, and to the Praesidium of the People's Council of a higher level.

Article 43.

The People's Councils appoint committees for various spheres of their activity. The committees of the People's Councils maintain constant and close links with the population, mobilise it for co-operation in implementing the Council's tasks, exercise social supervision on behalf of the Council and submit proposals to the Council and its organs.

Article 44.

1. A People's Council rescinds the decision of a People's Council of a lower level or of the Praesidium of such Council, if that decision is at variance with the law or incompatible with the basic line of the policy of the State.

2. The Praesidium of a People's Council may suspend the execution of a decision of a People's Council of a lower level and submit the case for decision at the next meeting of its own People's Council.

Article 45.

The details of composition as well as the terms of reference and the rules of procedure of the People's Councils and their organs are established by law.

Chapter 6. The Courts and the Public Prosecutor's Office

Article 46.

1. The administration of justice in the Polish People's Republic is carried out by the Supreme Court, Voivodeship Courts, District Courts and Special Courts.

2. Organisation, jurisdiction and procedure of the Courts are established by law.

Article 47.

The Courts pronounce judgment in the name of the Polish People's Republic.

Article 48.

The Courts are the custodians of the political and social system of the Polish People's Republic, they protect the achievements of the Polish working people, safeguard the people's rule of law, social property and the rights of citizens, and punish offenders.

Article 49.

People's assessors take part in the hearing of cases and the pronouncement of judgment, except in cases specified by law.

Article 50.

1. Judges and people's assessors are elected.

2. The procedure of election and the term of office of judges and assessors of Voivodeship and District Courts are established by law.

3. The procedure of appointment of judges of Special Courts is established by law.

Article 51.

1. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial organ and supervises the activity of all other courts concerning the pronouncement of judgment.

2. The procedure for the exercise of supervision by the Supreme Court is established by law.

3. The Supreme Court is elected by the Council of State for a term of five years.

Article 52.

Judges are independent and subject only to the law.

Article 53.

1. Cases in all courts of the Polish People's Republic are heard in public. The law may specify exceptions to this principle.

2. The accused is guaranteed the right to legal defence. He may have a defence counsel, either of his own choice or appointed by the Court.

Article 54.

1. The Public Prosecutor General of the Polish People's Republic safeguards the people's rule of law, watches over the protection of social property and ensures that the rights of citizens are respected.

2. The Public Prosecutor General supervises, in particular, the prosecution of offences endangering the political and social system, security and independence of the Polish People's Republic.

3. The limits of jurisdiction and the scope of activity of the Public Prosecutor General are established by law.

Article 55.

1. The Public Prosecutor General of the Polish People's Republic is appointed and recalled by the Council of State.

2. The mode of appointing and of recalling Public Prosecutors subordinate to the Public Prosecutor General, are, together with the principles of the organisation and procedure of organs of the Public Prosecutor's Office, established by law.

3. The Public Prosecutor General is accountable to the Council of State for the activity of the Public Prosecutor's Office.

Article 56.

The organs of the Public Prosecutor's Office are subordinate to the Public Prosecutor General of the Polish People's Republic and in the exercise of their functions are independent of local organs.

Chapter 7. Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens

Article 57.

The Polish People's Republic, by consolidating and multiplying the gains of the working people, strengthens and extends the rights and liberties of the citizens.

Article 58.

1. Citizens of the Polish People's Republic have the right to work, that is, the right to employment paid in accordance with the quantity and quality of work done.

2. The right to work is ensured by the social ownership of the basic means of production, by the development of a social and co-operative system in the countryside, free from exploitation;

by the planned growth of the productive forces;

by the elimination of sources of economic crises and by the abolition of unemployment.

Article 59.

1. Citizens of the Polish People's Republic have the right to rest and leisure.

2. The right to rest and leisure is assured to manual and office workers by reduction of working hours through the application of the 8-hour working day and shorter work time in cases specified by law, by the institution according to law of days off work and by annual holidays with Pay-3. The organisation of workers' holiday schemes, the development of the tourist movement, of health resorts, sports facilities, houses of culture, clubs, recreation rooms, parks and other leisure time facilities, create possibilities for healthy and cultural relaxation for an increasing number of working people in town and country.

Article 60.

1. Citizens of the Polish People's Republic have the right to health protection and to aid in the event of sickness or incapacity for work.

2. Effect is being given to this right on an increasing scale through:

i. the development of social insurance for manual and office workers to cover sickness, old age and incapacity for work, as well as through the expansion of various forms of social assistance;

ii. the development of the State organised protection of the health of the population, the expansion of sanitation services and the raising of the health standards in town and country, consistent improvement of safety conditions, protection and hygiene of work, a wide campaign for the prevention of and fighting disease, increasing access to free medical attention, the development of hospitals, sanatoria, medical aid centres, rural health centres, and care for the disabled.

Article 61.

1. Citizens of the Polish People's Republic have the right to education.

2. This right is ensured on an increasing scale by:

i. universal, free and compulsory primary schools;

ii. a constant development of secondary schools, providing general or vocational education, and of schools of academic level;

iii. the help of the State in raising the skill of citizens employed in industrial establishments and other places of employment in town and country;

iv. a scheme of State scholarships, the development of hostels, boarding schools and students' homes, together with other forms of material aid for the children of workers, working peasants and intelligentsia.

Article 62.

1. Citizens of the Polish People's Republic have the right to benefit from cultural achievements and to participate in the development of national culture.

2. This right is ensured on an increasing scale by developing and making accessible to the working people in town and country libraries, books, press, radio, cinemas, theatres, museums and exhibitions, houses of culture, clubs and recreation roams; by a general fostering and promoting of the cultural creative activity of the people and of the development of creative talents.

Article 63.

The Polish People's Republic fosters the allround development of science based on the achievements of the most advanced thought of mankind and of Polish progressive thought — the development of science in the service of the Nation.

Article 64.

The Polish People's Republic takes care of the development of Art and Letters, which express the needs and aspirations of the Nation and which are in accord with the best progressive traditions of Polish creative thought.

Article 65.

The Polish People's Republic extends special protection to the creative intelligentsia — to those working in science, education, literature and art, as well as to pioneers of technical progress, to rationalisers and inventors.

Article 66.

1. Women in the Polish People's Republic have equal rights with men in all spheres of public, political, economic, social and cultural life.

2. The equality of rights of women is guaranteed by:

i. equal rights with men to work and pay according to the principle "equal pay for equal work", the right to rest and leisure, to social insurance, to education, to honours and decorations, to hold public appointments;

ii. mother-and-child care, protection of expectant mothers, paid holidays during the period before and after confinement, the development of a network of maternity homes, creches and nursery schools, the extension of a network of service establishments and restaurants and canteens.

Article 67.

1. Marriage and the family are under the care and protection of the Polish People's Republic. The State gives particular care to families with many children.

2. A child born out of wedlock suffers no loss of rights.

Article 68.

The Polish People's Republic gives particularly careful attention to the education of youth and guarantees them the most extensive possibilities for development.

Article 69.

1. Citizens of the Polish People's Republic, irrespective of nationality, race or religion, enjoy equal rights in all spheres of public, political, economic, social and cultural life. Infringement of this principle by any direct or indirect granting of privileges or restriction of rights, on account of nationality, race or religion, is punishable by law.

2. The spreading of hatred or contempt, the provocation of strife or the humiliation of man on account of national, racial or religious differences are forbidden.

Article 70.

1. The Polish People's Republic guarantees freedom of conscience and religion to citizens. The Church and other religious bodies may freely exercise their religious functions. It is forbidden to prevent citizens from taking part in religious activities or rites. It is also forbidden to coerce anybody to participate in religious activities or rites.

2. The Church is separated from the State. The principles of the relationship between Church and State are, together with the legal and patrimonial position of religious bodies, determined by law.

3. The abuse of the freedom of conscience and religion for purposes prejudicial to the interests of the Polish People's Republic is punishable.

Article 71.

1. The Polish People's Republic guarantees its citizens freedom of speech, of the press, of meetings and assemblies, of processions and demonstrations.

2. The making available to the working people and their organisations of the use of printing shops, stocks of paper, public buildings and halls, means of communication, the radio and other indispensable material means, serves to give effect to this freedom.

Article 72.

1. In order to promote the political, social, economic and cultural activity of the working people of town and country, the Polish People's Republic guarantees to citizens the right of association.

2. Political organisations, trade unions, associations of working peasants, co-operative associations, youth, women's, sports and defence organisations, cultural, technical and scientific associations, as well as other working people's social organisations unite the citizens for active participation in. political, social, economic and cultural life.

3. The setting up of, and participation in, associations the aims or activities of which are directed against the political or social system or against the legal order of the Polish People's Republic are forbidden.

Article 73.

1. Citizens have the right to approach all organs of the State with complaints and grievances.

2. Citizens' complaints and grievances are to be examined and settled in an expeditious and just manner. Those guilty of protraction or of displaying a soulless and bureaucratic attitude towards citizens' complaints and grievances will be held responsible.

Article 74.

1. The Polish People's Republic guarantees to citizens inviolability of the person. A citizen may be deprived of his freedom only in cases specified by law. A detained person must be set free unless, within forty-eight hours from the moment of his detention, a warrant of arrest issued by the Court or the Procurator has been served on him.

2. The law protects the inviolability of the home and the privacy of correspondence. Search of the home is permissible only in cases specified by law.

3. Property may by seized only in cases established by law, by virtue of a final judgment.

Article 75.

The Polish People's Republic grants asylum to citizens of foreign countries persecuted for defending the interests of the working people, for struggling for social progress, for activity in defence of peace, for fighting for national liberation or for scientific activity.

Article 76.

It is the duty of every citizen of the Polish People's Republic to abide by the provisions of the Constitution and of the laws, to maintain socialist work discipline, to respect the rules of social intercourse and to discharge conscientiously their duties towards the State.

Article 77.

1. It is the duty of every citizen of the Polish People's Republic to safeguard and strengthen social property, which is the unshakable foundation of the development of the State, the source of the wealth and might of the country.

2. Persons who commit sabotage, subversion, inflict damage or who otherwise injure social property, are punishable with all the severity of law.

Article 78.

1. To defend the country is the most sacred duty of every citizen.

2. Military service is an honourable patriotic duty of citizens of the Polish People's Republic.

Article 79.

1. Vigilance against the enemies of the nation and the diligent guarding of State secrets is the duty of every citizen of the Polish People's Republic.

2. High treason — espionage, impairing the Armed Forces, desertion to the enemy — is punishable as the gravest of crimes with all the severity of law.

Chapter 8. Principles of Electoral Law

Article 80.

Elections to the Seym and to the People's Councils are universal, equal, direct and carried out by secret ballot.

Article 81.

Every citizen who has reached the age of eighteen has, irrespective of sex, nationality and race, religion, education, length of residence, social origin, profession or property, the right to vote.

Article 82.

Every citizen who has reached the age of eighteen is eligible for election to the People's Councils, and every citizen who has reached the age of twenty-one is eligible for election to the Seym.

Article 83.

Women have all electoral rights on equal terms with men.

Article 84.

Citizens serving in the Armed Forces have all electoral rights on equal terms with civilians.

Article 85.

Electoral rights are denied only to insane persons and to persons deprived by Court decision of public rights.

Article 86.

Candidates for the Seym and candidates for the People's Councils are nominated by political and social organisations in town and country.

Article 87.

It is the duty of Deputies to the Seym and of members of People's Councils to report to the electors on their work and on the activity of the body to which they have been elected.

Article 88.

The procedure for nomination of candidates and for holding elections, as well as the procedure for the recall of Deputies to the Seym and of members of People's Councils, are established by law.

Chapter 9. Coat-of-arms, Colours and Capital of the Polish People's Republic

Article 89.

1. The Coat-of-Arms of the Polish People's Republic is the image of a white eagle on a red field.

2. The colours of the Polish People's Republic are white and red.

3. The details are established by law.

Article 90.

The capital of the Polish People's Republic is Warsaw, the city of the heroic traditions of the Polish Nation.

Chapter 10. Procedure for Amending the Constitution

Article 91.

The Constitution may be amended only by an Act passed by the Seym of the Polish People's Republic by a majority of not less than two thirds of the votes,' not less than half the total number of Deputies being present.