Decisive Battles Since Waterloo/Chapter 12
CHAPTER XII.
BATTLE OF SOLFERINO—1859.
In the revolutions which blazed over Europe in 1848, Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, presented himself as the champion of Italian independence. He gave military aid to the insurgents in Lombardy, Parma, and Piedmont, and refused offers of assistance from the French with the reply that Italy would help herself. At first he was successful and defeated the Austrians on the fields of Pastrenga and Goito, but later he was defeated at Custozza, and forced into full retreat; his reverses resulted in an armistice, and on its expiration he renewed hostilities, relying on the simultaneous attack of the Hungarians upon the Austrians. On the 23d March, 1849, he was utterly defeated at Novara, and the Austrian rule upon Italy was confirmed and made stronger than ever before. The hope which Italy had based upon his efforts was utterly lost, Charles Albert surrendered the crown to his son, Victor Emanuel II., and retired to Oporto, where he died four months after his abdication.
A statesman who had much to do with Sardinia's declaration of war against Austria in 1848 and '9, was Camilio Benso Cavour, better known as Count Cavour. In 1850 he was called to the Cabinet of Victor Emanuel, and two years later was named President of the Council. All his energies were bent in the direction of renewing the struggle with Austria in the hope of uniting all Italy under the rule of the king of Sardinia. By joining France, Turkey, and England in the war against Russia in 1854, he gave Sardinia a place among the nations, and made sure that she would be represented at any conference to settle upon a treaty of peace. In conjunction with the Marquis Villamarina, Count Cavour represented Sardinia at the Treaty of Paris, in 1856, and during the conference he succeeded in winning Louis Napoleon almost completely to his purposes. In consequence of Orsini's attempt upon the life of the Emperor of the French, Cavour caused Sardinia to enact a special law against "suspects." The passage of this law was considered indicative of the intimate relations existing between Sardinia and France; Austria endeavored to create a better feeling for herself by a series of liberal measures and promises. Events indicated that a triple alliance against Austria was being formed by Russia, France, and Sardinia, and consequently there was much uneasiness.
On New Year's Day, 1859, the foreign ambassadors in Paris made their customary calls upon the emperor. The latter received the Austrian representative with his usual courtesy, and in the course of the interview said: "I regret that our relations with your government are not as good as formerly, but I beg of you to tell the emperor that my personal sentiments for him have not changed."
These few words caused excitement in diplomatic circles all over Europe. Austria and France pushed their preparations for war, and the Emperor of Austria replied to Louis Napoleon in much the same terms that the latter had used on New Year's Day when speaking to the Austrian ambassador. On the 30th of January Prince Napoleon was married to Princess Clothilde of Sardinia, and immediately thereafter the Austrian armies in Italy were increased, and the banks of the Ticino, the boundary between Sardinia and the Italian provinces of Austria, were fortified. In March and April Sardinia and France prepared for war; Russia sought to intervene and 
proposed a Congress, but there were disputes regarding the admission of Sardinia and nothing came of the proposal. On the 23d April, Austria demanded that within three days Sardinia should disarm, and dismiss the volunteers from other States; Sardinia refused on the 26th, and on the same day the Austrians crossed the Ticino. The French troops which had been massing on the frontier entered Piedmont on the 27th April, and on the 8th of May Napoleon III. made formal declaration of war, announcing his purpose to be nothing more than the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy.
For some two or three weeks there were no actual hostilities, the Austrians being occupied with plundering the part of Italy they had entered, and the French using every exertion to bring up their troops and make ready for battle. The Austrian left wing was defeated near Montebello on the 20th May; on the 31st May and 1st June the Austrians were again worsted at Palestro and driven across the Ticino. On the 4th June was fought the battle of Magenta, in which the Austrians were routed with a loss of about 20,000 (including 7,000 prisoners), the French losing about 7,000 killed and wounded. The Austrians took up a position along the line of the Mincio; the armies of Austria and France were commanded by their emperors in person, and for the next twenty days they were manœuvred in such a way as to bring them in collision at Solferino, whose battle-field has become historic.
On the 23d of June 151,000 French and Sardinians stood facing 160,000 Austrians, the latter having 650 guns and the former nearly as many. The Austrian right and centre occupied strong defensive positions, their left wing standing on a plain waiting to begin the attack. It was intended, since the opportunity seemed to be offered, to push the French out of their encampments beyond the Chiese and up to the base of the mountains. A considerable portion of the ground between the Chiese and the Mincio was level and full of earthworks and strong positions; the remainder was a plain or slightly undulating land, covered with vineyards, small gardens, cornfields, and orchards of fruit-trees. The more broken ground behind this position extends from Volta to Sonato, closing around the plain in a half-circle. Just above the hills rises the village of Solferino. The plain is broken by fissures in many places, which interfere with the rapid movement of troops. There are also many long stone walls bounding the farms.
The only place for manœuvring large bodies of troops is the plateau of San Martino, which is seen in the distance, and its northern and western sides are so steep as to render it a very powerful position. A valley running to the south of Solferino widens into a marsh. The highways from Castiglione and Carpendolo extend along the hills, and not far off is the square between Pozzolengo, Volta, Medola and Rivoltella, the field where the battle of Castiglione was fought in 1796.
At daybreak on the 24th the French and Sardinians broke up their encampments, marching in close array. The 1st corps, commanded by Marshal Baraguey d'Hilliers, was to attack the Austrians in their position on the heights of Solferino; the 2d corps, which was to advance on the village, had been on the way since three o'clock, in the morning. The 1st division was ordered to support the right wing of the 2d; it started at four o'clock, moving on towards Castiglione. The 1st division was to be followed by the 3d, which was not to move from Esenta before six o'clock. A great deal of time was lost in these movements, in consequence of the rugged nature of the ground to be crossed and the lack of knowledge of the plans and positions of the Austrians. The 1st division under General Forey encountered the Austrian outposts near the little town of Fontana and forced them back. When the 5th Austrian corps learned definitely that the French were moving up, they took position on the western edge of Solferino. In attempting to carry the hills in front of that point, the French found that the Austrians were in front in great strength; they were repulsed with heavy loss, and the 3d corps was stopped also close by Casa Morino, a very strong farm-house on the road between Medola and Solferino.
The 2d French corps then formed in readiness for battle without trying to advance farther to the front. Marshal MacMahon sent couriers to head-quarters to report that he was in front of the entire Austrian army in position on the line of Solferino to Carriano. He did not dare to risk an attack, and therefore remained in position waiting for orders from the emperor and for information regarding the whereabouts of the 4th corps, which he depended on to cover his right flank. This corps had started from Carpendolo at three o'clock taking the road to Medola. It was temporarily commanded by General Niel, and had at the end of a two-hours' march encountered some squadrons of Uhlans who were speedily driven back. When the Austrian commander learned that the French were advancing in full strength on Medola, he dispatched two brigades to oppose them. Marshal Canrobert, commanding the 3rd corps, was to go into camp at Medola, but to avoid crossing the lines of the 4th corps he left the direct line of advance and proceeded by a long and circuitous route around Acqua Fredda and Castel Goffredo. When the 3d corps had crossed the Chiese near Visano they encountered a regiment of hussars whom they drove back.
Marshal Canrobert wanted to go to the support of the 4th corps, and on learning that General Luy's division was menaced on its flank he turned his command towards Ceresana, but was delayed by the Chiese, whose crossing consumed two hours. The three Piedmontese divisions were on the extreme left of the front of the allied army. These divisions were making a reconnoissance of the fields between Lake Garda and Pozzolengo towards Peschiera, and seeing the Austrians posted on a ridge they advanced to attack them. At first they drove them back, but a reinforcement of Austrians came up and the Piedmontese in their turn were compelled to retire. General Benedek had 25,000 men occupying a large expanse of country. Two brigades were at some distance from the main body, but the Piedmontese made no attempt to take advantage of this insecure position. When General Benedek had dispersed their advance guard he sought to cut off their line of retreat, but General Mollard coming on with the 3d Piedmontese brigade took up the fight and marched to the attack on San Martino. The steep height was twice scaled by 6,000 Piedmontese and twice they were driven back, followed and crowded upon Rivoltella, thus losing all the advantages they had previously gained.
While these encounters were taking place Marshals MacMahon and Baraguey d' Hilliers notified head-quarters that the Austrians were throwing out heavy columns on the hills of Solferino and Carriano. Therefore the emperor left Montichiaro and took a new position at Castiglione, accompanied by his staff and personal escort. The advancing columns of the French were spread out at too great a distance to render one another any effective support. The 3d corps was sent to support the 4th corps and to stop an Austrian corps which was marching from Mantua upon Ossola. The 2d Piedmontese division turned from the Solferino road to find their 3d and 5th divisions defeated at San Martino, but their assistance was of no avail as the ranks were already badly broken and scattered.
Marshal Baraguey d' Hilliers, thus unsupported on his left wing and menaced on his right makes ready for the assault on the formidable works of Solferino. Upon the result of this assault will depend the issue of the battle. One brigade under General Forey moves into the plain while another is ordered to occupy a position on the heights against Solferino village, with the voltigeurs of the Guard in readiness to support them. The artillery of the Guards is unlimbered in front of the Austrian position, at a distance of 300 yards. The Imperial Guards rest on a line with General Forey's division.
It is now eleven o'clock. This twofold assault, properly aided by the reserve artillery of the 1st corps together with the three columns resting on Monte Fenile, ought to make success certain on the centre of the line. The Emperor of Austria had likewise transferred his head-quarters, going to Volta, where he learned that the French had begun the attack in earnest. At 9.12 a.m. he issued the following command:
"General Slick, the commander of the 2d army, is to hold Solferino as long as he can. The 8th corps, after folding back the Piedmontese upon Lake Garda, will send detachments in support of the 3d corps. The 1st army will keep its direction and disengage the centre attacked by the enemy."
The 2d brigade of Forey moves forward at a double quick to climb the nearest height to the east of Solferino, but it is driven back by superior numbers. After this repulse General Maneque advances with 3 battalions of voltigeurs. He is more successful, and drives the Austrians upon the base of Monte Sacre, where a fierce battle is being waged. Forey with his 2d brigade finds it impossible to turn the Austrian right flank at the tower of Solferino; his ranks are cut by the shot and shell of Austrians who stubbornly hold the position. The division of General L'Admirault now advances to make its attack, which is
chiefly directed on the cemetery and on the castle, but this also is met by a killing fire. The marshal now calls upon 
the Division Bazaine for aid, while the Austrians stand waiting for their 2d corps, which never arrived.
Baraguey d'Hilliers perceives that progress from this side is impossible; accordingly he orders his men to attack the cemetery from the rear, and the hill is taken at last. While the 1st French corps is actively engaged, the 2d corps engages the 1st Austrian corps. The Austrians capture Cassiano and Carriano, threatening to cut off MacMahon's retreat. But success at Solferino gives the French some men to spare. The assault is again taken up and the Austrians are forced back. General Maneque holds his position on the high ground of Monte Sacre and General Noël advances on San Cassiano. Marshal MacMahon is enabled to protect his flanks and even to assume the offensive. About five o'clock a strong body of Austrian hussars try to turn MacMahon's left. They advance at a charge and force their way through some French cavalry patrols, through a battalion of Decaen's division, and crowd back some of the imperial cavalry, but do not succeed in breaking the French line.
When Marshal MacMahon learned that General Noël intended to advance on Carriano, he took the offensive, pushing forward the 1st division on Solferino to join the grenadiers protecting San Cassiano. General La Motte-Rouge turning from the right of San Cassiano proceeded to attack the Austrians who were strongly posted there. The Chasseurs d'Afrique headed the column but were driven back, and a second attempt had a similar result.
Even after losing his position at Solferino the Austrian emperor hoped for victory. He believed that on the plateau of Carriano the issue of the day might be changed, and therefore he moved there with his head-quarters. By a movement of General Wimpffen the 1st and 2d French corps were separated; the emperor then ordered Wimpffen to combine his forces on Castiglione and to press the French as vigorously as possible. The Austrians moved towards Medola, but were held in check. The 9th Austrian corps attacked Casanuova but did not succeed in capturing it. Opposed to 45,000 French is a force of 65,000 Austrians.
The key of the French position is Casanuova for which they stubbornly contend. Marshal Niel, supported by the 1st brigade of General Trochu, goes out towards Giudizzolo, but is attacked by overpowering numbers, and is on the point of being captured when three fresh battalions come up and save him from defeat. It was four o'clock when General Wimpffen was driven back and Niel was rescued; this advantage was obtained by a loss of 5,000 men killed and wounded.
The Austrians could hold their positions no longer; their centre was scattered and their right wing in danger. They formed a new line behind the Mincio, harassed by MacMahon. General Benedek still maintained himself at San Martino. The Piedmontese had suffered severely at his hands, and he was threatening to turn the left of the 1st French. Baraguey d'Hilliers ordered General Mollard to guard against the attack and support the French, but before the blow was struck Benedek suddenly withdrew, in obedience to a command from the emperor to follow the army behind the Mincio.
It was now nine in the evening; no enemy was in view on the plain, and the French passed the night in bivouac on the battle-field. The sun rose next morning on an awful scene; for all of the vast plain on which the two armies had contended the day before was thickly strewn with dead and wounded. The moans and cries of the wounded were heard for miles around. The front of the battle extended nearly fifteen miles from the extreme ends. The fighting was most severe at the village of Solferino, which both parties considered the key of the position; the loss was heaviest at that point, but elsewhere it was far from light.
The losses of the French in the battle amounted to 12,000 killed and wounded of non-commissioned officers and soldiers; 150 commissioned officers were killed and 570 wounded; 7 colonels and 6 lieutenant-colonels were killed, and among the wounded there were the Generals L'Admirault, Forey, Auger, Dieu, and Douay. The Sardinian army had 5,525 killed, wounded, and missing, of which 642 were killed. Of Sardinian officers killed there were 49, and 167 officers were wounded. The Sardinian army captured five pieces of cannon; the French took thirty pieces of cannon, four flags, and 6,000 prisoners. The Austrian losses were said to be 20,000 killed and wounded, including 630 officers, while the prisoners, missing, and stragglers were fully 10,000 more. The Austrians retired beyond the Mincio and took up their position under the shelter of their great quadrilateral of fortesses, where it was considered doubtful if the French would be able to contend with them successfully.
There was a pause in hostilities after the battle. Three days were required for burying the dead who fell in the conflict, but it was fully a week before the peasantry of the country, who had been summoned for the work, had buried or burned the carcases of the cavalry and artillery horses that strewed the ground for long distances. Negotiations for an armistice were begun immediately, and on the 6th July it was agreed upon. On the 11th of the same month the two emperors met at Villafranca and signed the preliminaries of peace. It was stipulated that Lombardy, with the exception of the fortresses of Mantua and Peschiera, should be ceded to Sardinia; Venetia was to remain in possession of Austria; the restoration of the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Duke of Modena were stipulated; and an Italian confederation was proposed to be formed.
The defeat of the Austrians at Solferino was the foundation of the united Italy of later days. Within less than a year after the memorable battle came the revolutions which preceded the solemn proclamation of Victor Emanuel as King of Italy, and a few months later the flight of Francis II. to Gaeta and the capture of that stronghold gave the new ruler the control of the southern part of the peninsula. France was compensated for her part in the war of 1859 by the cession of Savoy and Nice; later events (in 1866 and '70), which will be considered elsewhere, completed the work of unification, and produced the "Italia Irridenta" which was the dream of Cavour and for centuries the ardent hope of millions of his countrymen.
