Edgar Allan Poe - How to know him/Chapter 1

by Charles Alphonso Smith

 

EDGAR ALLAN POE

CHAPTER I

The World-Author

It is peculiarly true in the case of Edgar Allan Poe that to know him you must know more than the bare facts and dates of his life. These may be summarized as follows:

He was born in Boston, at what is now 62 Carver Street, on January 19, 1809, the triangle at Carver and Broadway having been recently named the Edgar Allan Poe Square. His mother, Elizabeth Arnold, a talented and beautiful English actress, had been early left a widow and in 1806 at the age of nineteen had married David Poe, Jr., a native of Baltimore. David Poe was also an actor but does not seem to have shared the rare gifts of his wife or to have inherited the sturdier qualities of his father, a hero of the American Revolution. "My father David died," writes Poe, "when I was in the second year of my age, and when my sister Rosalie was an infant in arms. Our mother died a few weeks before him. Thus we were left orphans at an age when the hand of a parent is so peculiarly requisite. At this period my grandfather's circumstances were at a low ebb, he from great wealth having been reduced to poverty. It was therefore in his power to do but little for us. My brother Henry he took, however, under his charge, while myself and Rosalie were adopted by gentlemen in Richmond, where we were at the period of our parents' death. I was adopted by Mr. John Allan of Richmond, Virginia, and she by Mr. William McKenzie of the same place." When Mr. Allan died, in 1834, he had given Poe five years of schooling in England, from 1815 to 1820; he had sent him for one session, that of 1826, to the University of Virginia; he had placed him in his counting-house in Richmond; he had obtained his discharge from the army, in which Poe had enlisted at Boston in 1827; he had secured his appointment as a cadet at West Point, where he remained from July, 1830, to March, 1831; and he had continued to send a large enough remittance for his protégé to live on. It is to be hoped also that he had read with proper pride The Ms. Found in a Bottle with which his namesake had astonished the reading public of Baltimore the year before and won the hundred-dollar prize, this being the first public recognition of Poe's narrative skill.

Had Mr. Allan lived a year longer he would have seen Poe back in Richmond on a salary of eight hundred dollars a year as the editor of the great Southern Literary Messenger. Never again was his salary to be so large; but in 1837, Poe and his child-wife, Virginia Clemm, shepherded by Mrs. Clemm,

 

"Dearer than the mother I knew
By that infinity with which my wife
Was dearer to my soul than its soul-life,"

 

begin their pilgrimage to New York. From now till the end it was to be only a checkered Grub Street trail for Poe. He did not make his living by his stories or by his poems; he made it, such as it was, by critical hackwork done at odd times for journals and newspapers. He toiled terribly, for the cult of pefection drove or drew him in every task. After a year in New York they move to Philadelphia where they remain from 1838 to 1844. The last move was back again to New York. Here in 1845, on the appearance of The Raven, Poe found himself famous. But Virginia's death in 1847 and his own desperate illness dashed whatever hopes he may have had of ultimate happiness in the little Fordham home and another move is planned, that to Richmond. But the end came midway on October 7, 1849. After the harrowing termination of his engagement to Sarah Helen Whitman, of Providence, he had paid a happy visit of renewal to Richmond and was soon engaged to Mrs. Sarah E. Shelton, the Miss Royster of his university days. He was on his way to New York to bring Mrs. Clemm back to Richmond to attend the wedding and to share, the joy of a settled home at last, when he was found unconscious at Ryan's Fourth Ward Polls in Baltimore and taken at once to the Washington Medical College. Early Sunday morning, wrote Doctor J. J. Moran, "A very decided change began to affect him. Having become enfeebled from exertion, he became quiet and seemed to rest for a short time; then gently moving his head, he said, 'Lord, help my poor soul,' and expired."

 

II

 

The story is pitiful enough if we end it, as men thought it was ended, on that October afternoon that saw Poe laid beside his grandfather at the corner of Fayette and Greene Streets. But to know Poe we must follow him not to his death but to his coronation in 1909. That year marked his centennial, as it marked the centennial of Lincoln, Holmes, Darwin, Gladstone, Tennyson, Chopin, and Gogol. It was then that historians looked back over the century and attempted a fresh appraisal of the men who had now rounded out their first hundred years. If the name of Poe did not lead all the rest, it was surpassed by none in the interest awakened, in the international acclaim rendered, and in a certain recognized indebtedness for thought and vision and craftsmanship. At the University of Virginia, in Baltimore, in New York, in London, in Paris, in Madrid, and in Berlin, Poe's birthyear was celebrated by memorial meetings and centennial articles as the birthyear of no other American poet or prose-writer had ever been celebrated before.

"It is surely a somewhat striking fact," said The Edinburgh Review, for January, 1910, "that, of authors born in America, Poe is the only one to whom the term 'world-author' can with any propriety be applied." No, there are others. Franklin, Cooper, Emerson, Longfellow, and Mark Twain are world-authors; and Walt Whitman, Joel Chandler Harris, William James in a narrower sense, and O. Henry are fast becoming world-authors. But it is none the less true that the title belongs preeminently to Poe. His appeal as poet and story-teller, the universality of his themes, the purity of his style, his studied avoidance of slang and localism, his wealth of sheer intellect and his equal dowry of constructive imagination, together with his almost uncanny feeling for form and color, for the fitting melody and the enhancing background, these put him in a class alone, and these have given him a recognition in foreign lands not equalled by any other American writer.

The story of his conquest of world opinion can be told only in outline. It is a story, however, more dramatic in interest than any that he himself wrote. The American is not to be envied who does not feel a patriotic pride in the career of an author who, if he could not lift himself above the handicaps of habit and ill health and poverty, yet drove through them, and gave to the outside world its first and most lasting conception of Americanism as literature. To know Poe one must know this larger story.

It was Russia, not France, that took the initiative in Europeanizing Poe's fame. "Casual translations from Poe," says Abraham Yarmolinsky,^[1] "began to appear in leading Russian periodicals as early as the late thirties." But Poe knew nothing of this. Several years later he was called "an unknown writer" even in England. He had questioned Dickens about the prospects of republication in London, and Dickens had written as late as 1842: "The only consolation I can give you is that I do not believe any collection of detached pieces by an unknown writer, even though he were an Englishman, would be at all likely to find a publisher in this metropolis just now."

The popularity of Poe in Russia seems to have been continuous and cumulative. "The first name a Russian is most likely to mention," continues Yarmolinsky, "when the conversation turns to American literature, is that of 'mad Edgar.' It is Poe that has come to be popularly identified in Russia with the American literary genius in its highest achievements. Poe's popularity in Russia is hard to overrate. He is known not only as a teller of strange, unforgettable tales and of what a Russian critic calls 'philosophical fables, which hypnotise both our senses and our mind,' but also as a poet who has discovered new islands of beauty. Russian literature possesses a truly remarkable translation of Poe's complete poetical works, which closely follows the metre of the original. This is perhaps the most adequate transposition of Poe's poetry yet produced in any language."

The translator thus referred to is Constantine Balmont,^[2] the poet, who has also translated Whitman's Leaves of Grass into Russian. Whitman, says Balmont, is the South Pole. "But Edgar Poe is the North Pole and all the southern lands which one passes on one's way to the North Pole. Edgar Poe is the sweetest sound of the lute and the most passionate sob of the violin. He is sensation exalted to the state of crystal serenity, an enchanted gorgeous hall ending with a magical mirror........ Edgar Poe is the furnace of self-knowledge. He is our elder brother, the beloved Solitary One, and we sorely grieve that we are not able to sail up the river of years and join him, all of us, a faithful band, now so numerous, him, our king, who at that time was deserted, in the dreadful moment of his great struggle. Peace, peace be with him, our fair angel of sorrow. He lives among us, in our most delicate sensations, in the mad outcries of our sorrow, in the sonorous rhythms of our songs, in rhymes final and initial, in the beautiful gestures of the young girl who thinks of him."

"Poe is regarded in Germany," says Doctor Georg Edward,^[3] himself a distinguished German poet and critic, "as the typical and characteristic American author." If the German attitude has been less devotional than that of France or Russia it has at least been more dissertational, the number of special studies that appeared in 1909 far surpassing those that appeared in any other country. Five years after Poe's death a leading German review declared that his name "was bound to live in the annals of American literature." Since then Poe's stories have been translated into all the German popular collections of world literature—Reclam, Hendel, Cotta, Spemann, Meyer, and others; and his poems have had an almost equal vogue. It was in 1860 that Friedrich Spielhagen, the German Balmont as Balmont was the Russian Baudelaire and Baudelaire the French Ingram, published in Europa a notable study of Poe whom he called "the greatest lyric singer that America has produced." There has been no diminution of German interest in Poe since 1860, and the German contention that Poe is representatively American rather than distinctively un-American seems to me one of the most valid contributions to Poe criticism yet made.

But German criticism errs, I think, in its insistence on the supposed debt that Poe owed to German literature and especially to Hoffmann. No indebtedness can be traced. Poe could not read German and, if he could, the native temper of his mind was such as to make him independent of Hoffmann and the Hoffmann school. Nor is there the analogy that the Germans assert between Poe, the writer, and Böcklin, the Swiss painter. Their ideals were different, their methods divergent, their results antipodal. Comparison between the two leads only to contrast.

An undesigned tribute to Poe's vogue in Germany may be mentioned in passing. It was my privilege to conduct a Poe Seminar at the University of Berlin during the winter of 1910-1911. "Whom do you consider the most famous woman born in America?" asked a German woman who was also a student of American history. After some hesitation I replied that in my judgment the choice would lie between Pocahontas and Dolly Madison. "But what would your answer be?" I asked. "Why," she replied, "I should have said Annabel Lee." Another unintentional tribute to Poe, to the haunting but elusive melody of one of his refrains, is found in Theodor Etzel's centennial translation of The Raven^[4]The translator was determined to preserve the long o sound which reappears four times in each stanza and culminates in the sonorous recurrence of "Nevermore." But "Nevermore" is not German and "Nimmermehr," which is German, is short, jerky, and unrelated to the coveted long o sound. The reader will hardly believe that the translator solves the difficulty by making the raven say "Nie du Thor," "Never, you fool," in answer to every question put to him by the disconsolate lover. Is there in all the literature of translation a more dolorous example of the sacrifice of sense to sound, of mood to melody, of reason to rime, than these words furnish? But Poe would have enjoyed it, for it meant the triumph of his favorite vowel over obstacles that might well have daunted the master himself.^[5]

Among the Latin countries, Italy seems to have been tardiest in translating Poe, though his influence had already pervaded Italy through the French translations of Baudelaire. "My guess is rather uncertain," writes Professor C. H. Grandgent, of Harvard, "as such guesses must be; but I should be inclined to rank Poe as third in Italy, preceded by Cooper and Longfellow." Professor Ernest H. Wilkins, of the University of Chicago, would substitute Whitman for Cooper: "It may fairly be said, I think, that Poe and Longfellow are the two American writers best known to Italian readers in general and that they are equally well known. In Italian critical opinion Poe and Whitman are regarded as being the two most important American writers and as being of equal importance." Felice Ferrero, the brother of the great historian, puts Poe first: "It is probably correct, in a certain sense, to say that Poe is more widely known in Italy than any other American writer; but I doubt whether one could say that he is a much read author. American literature is a terra incognita to the Italian reader. Knowledge of English is not sufficiently spread in Italy to enable people of culture to enjoy the American authors in the original text, and very few translations had been published before the war. Most of the Italian acquaintance with American literature has been made indirectly through French translations. The popularity of Poe in France, therefore, explains why Poe is better known in Italy than other American writers. My first reading of Poe's Contes extraordinaires was in a French translation, there being at that time no Italian translation at all."

But Poe did not lack for translators after the start was once made. An Italian version of his stories, Storie incredibili di Edgardo Poe, appeared in 1869, another in 1876, and two in 1885. The Narrative of A. Gordon Pym followed in 1887. The Raven was translated into Italian verse in 1890 by Guido Menasci, and in 1892 Ulysse Ortensi, heeding the desire rather than the warning of Baudelaire, translated all of Poe's major poems into musical Italian prose.^[6]

Italian art has also felt the impress of Poe's genius. It is well known that Gaetano Previati, whose influence has been potent on the modern school of Italian painters, found more inspiration for his brush in the writings of Poe than in the pages of any other genius, ancient or modern. Though Poe's works are, as we have seen, everywhere accessible in Italian, Previati prefers "the author's native language to the uncertainties that might arise in translation." In fact the purity and vividness of Poe's language are such that he is often used in foreign lands as the standard of classic English. "Are you familiar with the works of Edgar Allan Poe?" Doctor Inazo Nitobé, the famous Japanese scholar, was asked. "Familiar with them!" he replied. "We learn English in Japan from The Raven and The Gold-Bug."

It is by no means certain that Poe is better known in Spain than in Italy but the facts are more accessible. The distinguished Spanish novelist, Vicente Blasco Ibanez, when visiting the Poe Cottage at Fordham in November, 1919, said: "Poe is my spiritual and literary father. His name is as famous in Europe as Lincoln's." In Spain it is probably more famous. "Of all the American writers whose works have reached Spain," says John DeLancey Ferguson,^[7] "Poe is probably the most significant. Though in mere number of translations he is surpassed by Cooper, he has received far more respectful treatment than has ever been accorded to the older man, and from the time of his first introduction to the present day the Spaniards have shown a persistent and steadily increasing interest in his work." It may be added that in Doctor Ferguson's appended bibliography of Spanish translations and critical articles Poe occupies as much space as Cooper and Hawthorne combined and more than twice the number of pages filled by Longfellow.

The first Spanish edition of Poe's tales appeared in Madrid in 1858. The introduction is by Doctor Nicasio Landa who, amid much that is bizarre in biography and comment, declares rightly enough that Poe "was the first to exploit the marvelous in the field of science." There is as much difference, Doctor Landa holds, between Poe's tales and ordinary tales of witchcraft as there is between chemistry and alchemy—not a bad comparison. He also contests Baudelaire's statement that Poe's wretchedness was due to the crudeness of American democracy. No, says Doctor Landa, there "never was a country in which freedom of thought was permitted to carry itself to such extremes as in America," and he cites in triumphant illustration the unimpeded preachments of "Mistress Bloummer" and the popular vagaries of "the saints of last day."

Of Poe's command of English a later Spanish critic, D. A. H. Catà, writes as follows: "Never since Shakespeare has the English language been handled with such art. Poe had the secret of euphony and fine phrase; between his thoughts and his sentences there is always an indissoluble connection. He knew the inevitable word, the mitigating word, the consoling word. He knew what things make us laugh or weep and, master of inspiration and of language, he could always dominate our will, making our spirit run the whole gamut of emotion from grotesque merriment and vaguely sad placidity up to the brutal and agonizing horror of intolerable fear. He has made us yearn with his heroes, weep with their misfortunes, and fear with their forebodings. His work will endure forever, because it is the child of beauty and of grief." Still more acute and illuminating is the remark of José de Castro y Serrano, the Spanish novelist. "Not long ago," he writes in 1871, "a great New-World genius (the Anglo-American Poe) astonished the present generation with his extraordinary tales (Historias extraordinarias). These were based on a philosophical principle, the sublimation, that is, of the marvelous, a principle which the human heart never has abandoned and never will abandon; and the skilful narrator was able to stir and to terrify the literary world despite the fact that Hoffmann had written many years before. The reason is that Hoffmann started from the fantastic in order to arrive naturally at the marvelous, while Poe starts in search of the marvelous from the threshold of the real and actual."

The Spanish centennial article is contributed by Ángel Guerra^[8], who has been rated as "one of the four greatest living Spanish critics." He finds the same stubborn hostility to Poe in America that has existed from the beginning. In his native land "Poe has had to conquer a renown inch by inch which our old Europe would have sowed on all the winds of fame." He remains solitary, unrelated, un-American, not reached by influences from the writers of his own land or from those of England. "When they buried the remains of that unfortunate man, the Yankees thought they had buried in oblivion the talent of their greatest, their most original, their most profound poet, not excluding Longfellow and Whitman. A huge silence enveloped the name of Edgar Poe in the United States...... But the glory of the final rehabilitation of the poet was reserved for a European, for Baudelaire, his spiritual brother. Edgar Poe's native land is America; his spiritual birth must be sought in Germany; his elevation to immortality, with justice rendered to his supreme merits, is the gift of generous France."

Whether Poe's popularity in Latin-American countries is a derivative of his popularity in Spain or harks back for its original impulse to Baudelaire's work, it would be hazardous to say. Certain it is, however, that no other American author has so fertilized the intellect and imagination of Central and South America as has Poe. This was the prompt testimony of Rubén Darío, Nicaragua's greatest poet, if not the greatest poet of Latin America, during his visit to the United States in the spring of 1915. Darío, by the way, prefixed a promising though fragmentary study to the volume of Poe's poems published in Madrid in 1909, the best translation in the volume being that of The Raven by the Venezuelan poet, Pérez Bonalde. "Poe is very well known in our Latin-American countries," writes from Buenos Aires the distinguished South American scholar, A. Abeledo, "The Raven and The Bells having passed into our school textbooks."

But, as Guerra has said, Poe's elevation to immortality is in a way "the gift of generous France," and it was the gift of France chiefly through Baudelaire and Mallarmé. "It would be too much to say," writes Henri Potez,^[9] "that Edgar Poe begat Baudelaire and that Baudelaire begat almost all contemporary poetry; but the statement would contain much truth." When Remy de Gourmont was asked what external influences he deemed paramount in French literature, he replied: "Browning and Pater but, above all, Poe,—Poe, through his son, Mallarmé." No closer or more interesting literary affinity has ever existed than that between Edgar Allan Poe and Charles Baudelaire. The chief difference was expressed by Baudelaire himself: "There is not in all of Poe's work a single passage that tends to lubricity or even to sensual pleasure." Barring this difference, which is fundamental, Baudelaire adopted all of Poe's critical dicta and defended them to the last with a loyalty that would brook not the slightest disagreement; he translated Poe's stories into French "with an identification of style and thought so exact," says Gautier, "that they seem original works rather than translations;" he lived to see Poe enthroned as one of the sovereigns of European literature; and, when nearing his own end, he made a solemn resolve "to pray to God every morning, to God who is the receptacle of all strength and all justice, to my father, to Marietta, and to Poe, as intercessors."

"It was in 1846 or 1847," Baudelaire wrote to Armand Fraisse, "that I became acquainted with a few fragments of Edgar Poe.^[10] I experienced a peculiar emotion. As his complete works were not collected till after his death, I had the patience to make friends with some Americans living in Paris so as to borrow from them collections of Journals that had been edited by Poe. And then I found—believe me or not, as you will—poems and tales of which I had already a vague, confused, and ill-ordered idea and which Poe had known how to arrange and bring to perfection." Six years later he writes: "I am accused of imitating Edgar Poe. Do you know why I translated Poe with such patience? Because he was like me. The first time that I opened a book of his, I saw with terror and delight not only subjects I had dreamed of, but sentences that I had thought of and that he had written twenty years before."

Baudelaire's first volume of translations from Poe, Histoires extraordinaires, appeared in 1856. Others followed till two years before his death in 1867. Many competitors have entered the lists against him but he has had no rivals. Baudelaire has, in fact, elevated and standardized the art of putting the prose of one language into the prose of another. One curious minor mistake may be mentioned. Jupiter, the negro in The Gold-Bug, says that his master was "as white as a gose [ghost]." Baudelaire makes him "as white as a goose," "pâle comme une oie." Also in The Raven, almost the only poem of Poe's that Baudelaire translated, "Though thy crest be shorn and shaven" is rendered, awkwardly, "Bien que ta tête soit sans huppe et sans cimier."

What Baudelaire did for Poe's prose, Stéphane Mallarmé and Gabriel Mourey did, though not with equal finality, for his verse.^[11] In a letter written to Sarah Helen Whitman on April 4, 1876, Mallarmé says: "Whatever is done to honor the memory of a genius the most truly divine the world has seen, ought it not at first to obtain your sanction? Such of Poe's works as our great Baudelaire has left untranslated, that is to say, the poems and many of the critical fragments, I hope to make known to France." Mallarmé was a symbolist and the prince of symbolists. His motto was, "To name is to destroy, to suggest is to create." He was spokesman for the subconscious. Every clear idea, he thought, had long ago been expressed; what remained was to give utterance to the subliminal. Edmund Gosse said of him: "Language was given to Mallarmé to conceal definite thought, to draw the eye away from the object. He aims at illusion and wraps mystery around his simplest utterance." Mallarmé's passion for perfection, in other words, brought its own defeat; it splintered his effort into fragments, shining fragments but fragments none the less. In his quest for symbolism the word rather than the idea became the unit.

These qualities of style are necessarily kept in check to a degree in Mallarmé's prose versions of Poe's poems; but, with all their perfection of word equivalence, these rimeless and rhythmless lines, these stanzas that lack the old integrations, seem almost a parody to the reader whose ear has long been accustomed to the haunting melodies of the original. But that Mallarmé's translations are read and enjoyed in France is in itself a testimony to the innate beauty, the residual charm, of Poe's poetic structures, when bereft of those formal elements in which their beauty and charm have hitherto been thought so largely to consist. It is hard to think of The Raven or of Ulalume without those interreticulations of sound and form, those reciprocities of repetition and parallelism, which in Poe's hands fused them into artistic unity; but in Mallarmé's versions, however exquisite the prose, it is prose still. That Poe has stood the test is a noteworthy tribute to the intrinsic worth and fundamental texture of his poetic material. One unexpected result of Mallarmé's work has been to put Poe, in the eyes of Frenchmen at least, side by side with Whitman in the ranks of the vers librists. Strange bedfellows, these! "Yet it is true," says Caroline Ticknor,^[12] "that Mallarmé's translations of Poe set the pace for the new school from which the exponents of vers libre assuredly derive their inspiration."

Of the many French biographies of Poe the most elaborate is that by Lauvrière.^[13] But it is a study in pathology. Scholarly, painstaking, accurate, and even sympathetic in its statement of facts, its inferences do not carry conviction. Morbidité, aliénisme, dégénérescence, décadence—these do not belong to Poe. They can be read into his life and genius only by a studied selection of incidents and an equally studied rejection of those that do not fit. More of this in the next chapter but let it be said here that the French pendulum has already begun to swing in the opposite direction. The latest French life of Poe, that by André Fontainas,^[14] takes issue squarely with Lauvrière and pleads eloquently and justly for a fairer and more comprehensive judgment of all the facts.

Whatever may be the verdict of the future on the nature of genius in general and of Poe's genius in particular—and we confidently believe that literature as pathology has had its day—no one can question Poe's primacy in France. "His verse," says Teodor de Wyzéwa, "is the most magnificent which the English language possesses." When George Brandes was asked more than twenty years ago to name the foreign writers who had done most to mould French literature, he mentioned first Edgar Allan Poe, adding as secondary influences Tolstoi, Dostoyevsky, Heine, and Shelley. Summing up his centennial survey of Poe's position in France, Curtis Hidden Page^[15] writes: "Poe is the one American writer who has been accepted and acclaimed by the majority of intelligent Frenchmen." The last word is from André Fontainas,^[16] poet, essayist, historian, biographer, and translator: "No writer of the English language has penetrated so profoundly the consciousness of the writers of all lands as has Edgar Allan Poe. In France he is as truly alive today as the most living of French poets."

From England came the first biography of Poe characterized by fairness, by wide investigation, by unwearied collection of facts and manuscripts, and by an ardent though not intemperate admiration of the man and his work. From 1862 till his death in 1916 the central interest of John H. Ingram was the vindication of Poe's memory from the slanders of Griswold and the establishment of the poet's fame on the secure basis of an accurate and adequate text. Ingram has been called^[17] "the discourager of Poe biographies." It is true that he soon came to regard Poe as preempted territory but only when some luckless biographer had assailed Ingram himself or given evidence of ineptitude in recording or interpreting the facts of Poe's life. Ingram was a tactless man as his correspondence with Mrs. Whitman shows; but with those whom he knew personally, with Swinburne, Morris, Rossetti, Mallarmé, and Mourey, Ingram was an enthusiastic crusader in a cause that he regarded as sacred. He had a right to say as he did say^[18] a few years before his death: "I have labored for the glory of Poe and I have defended his reputation better than he himself would have done, for I knew better than he who were his friends and who his enemies. My effort has borne fruit, and the halo of glory about the poet has not ceased to grow brighter."

Ingram's first vindicatory Memoir appeared in 1874; but from Swinburne two years before had come the first clear note of authoritative lyric recognition of Poe that had been heard from England. And, to the last, Swinburne was always ready to take up the cudgels for the American poet and to give a reason for his championship. "Once as yet, and once only," he wrote,^[19] "has there sounded out of it all [American literature] one pure note of original song—worth singing, and echoed from the singing of no other man; a note of song neither wide nor deep, but utterly true, rich, clear, and native to the singer; the short, exquisite music, subtle and simple and somber and sweet, of Edgar Poe." According to Swinburne, the comparison of Poe with Hawthorne is the comparison of the complete with the half man of genius. "I was nearly tempted the other day," he declares,^[20] "to write a rapid parallel or contrast between Hawthorne—the half man of genius who never could carry out an idea or work it through to the full result—and Poe, the complete man of genius (however flawed and clouded at times) who always worked out his ideas thoroughly, and made something solid, rounded, and durable of them—not a mist wreath or a waterfall."

In a later letter to Edmund Clarence Stedman, Swinburne refuses to put Thanatopsis or The Commemoration Ode in quite the same class with Poe's verse, and gives his reasons. "I believe you know my theory," he says, "that nothing which can possibly be as well said in prose ought ever to be said in verse." August meditation and grave patriotic feeling are good in their way, he contends, but it is not the way of song. "I must say that while I appreciate (I hope) the respective excellence of Mr. Bryant's Thanatopsis and of Mr. Lowell's Commemoration Ode, I can not say that either of them leaves in my ear the echo of a single note of song. It is excellent good speech, but if given us as song, its first and last duty is to sing. The one is most august meditation, the other a noble expression of deep and grave patriotic feeling on a supreme national occasion; but the thing more necessary, though it may be less noble than these, is the pulse, the fire, the passion of music—the quality of a singer, not of a solititary philosopher or a patriotic orator. Now, when Whitman is not speaking bad prose he sings, and when he sings at all he sings well. Mr. Longfellow has a pretty little pipe of his own, but surely it is very thin and reedy. Again, whatever may be Mr. Emerson's merits, to talk of his Poetry seems to me like talking of the scholarship of a child who has not learned its letters."

But the praise that would have meant most to the living Poe came from Tennyson. Poe's admiration for Tennyson knew no bounds, though he did not live to read the poems on which the laureate's fame is now seen to rest most securely. "I am not sure," he once wrote, "that Tennyson is not the greatest of poets.... By the enjoyment or non-enjoyment of the Morte d'Arthur or of the Œnone I would test any man's ideal sense." He loved to recite from The Princess the song beginning,

 

Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean,

 

and used to say that the words,

 

When unto dying eyes
The casement slowly grows a glimmering square,

 

were "unsurpassed by any image expressed in writing." But when Tennyson was asked in 1875 to write an epitaph of one line for Poe's monument in Westminster Churchyard, Baltimore, he said to his son: "How can so strange and so fine a genius, and so sad a life, be exprest and comprest in one line?" He wrote, however, to the committee: "I have long been acquainted with Poe's works, and am an admirer of them." But when later he came to pass a more matured judgment on Poe as poet and prose-writer, he said:^[21] "I know several striking poems by American poets, but I think that Edgar Poe is (taking his poetry and prose together) the most original American genius."

Tennyson's opinion is shared by the representative English critics. "Poe is the greatest writer in prose fiction whom America has produced," wrote Andrew Lang.^[22] "He has left a body of widely various criticism which, as such, will better stand critical examination today," writes J. M. Robertson,^[23] "than any similar work produced in England or America in his time." And Edmund Gosse^[24] in his centennial article says of Poe, the poet: "He was the pioneer of a school which has spread its influence to the confines of the civilised world, and is now revolutionising literature."

 

III

 

This survey of Poe as an international influence is not meant to anticipate your own opinion or to coerce your own judgment, but to free it. It is meant to furnish perspective and background for the study of a writer who in American criticism has been traditionally represented not as a world-author but as narrow and even sectional in his appeal. It is an attempt to let 1849 hear the voices of 1909.

It was an evil day for American literary criticism, for what we call Americanism in the larger sense, when the great Emerson curtly dismissed Poe as "the jingle man." He was biting on granite, as was Poe when he dubbed Emerson a "mystic for mysticism's sake." Both would have retracted gladly could they have re-weighed their verdicts in the scales of the impartial years. Jingles can not be translated into potent and radiating inspirations in other tongues; and the mystic for mysticism's sake can not enrich the ethical standards of a reading world.

When we hear that Henry James pronounced Poe's poems "very valueless verse," it is surely worth while to know that the world at large does not think so; when John Burroughs calls Poe's verse "empty of thought," it is worth asking if the defect may not lie in the critic rather than in the poet; when Brownell asserts that Poe's writings, whether prose or verse, "lack the elements not only of great but of real literature," when he pleads that Poe should be denied a place in the American Hall of Fame, it is well to hear the multitudinous laughter of a world that has already enthroned him in its own more exclusive Hall of Fame. Poe has been studied as an effect, the effect of unfortunate inheritance, of cramping poverty, of uncongenial environment. But let us study him as a cause. A voice is studied backward from its reach and resonance. A projectile force is studied not merely in its constituents but by its power to project. "By their fruits ye shall know them," not by their roots. Doctor Samuel Johnson once said that he never knew that he had succeeded "until he felt the rebound." We have tried to estimate, though very cursorily, the rebound of Poe's effort. Ben Jonson phrased it better still: "Men, and almost all sorts of creatures, have their reputation by distance; rivers, the farther they run and the more from their spring, the broader they are, and the greater." Poe has traveled far from his spring. Are we wrong in approaching the study of him with at least the provisional supposition that there is a certain breadth, even a certain greatness in him?

1. See The Bookman, N. Y., September, 1916.
2. It will be remembered that Rachmaninoff's symphony, "The Bells," heard in New York and Philadelphia in February, 1920, was based on Balmont's translation of Poe's poem.
3. See The Book of the Poe Centenary, University of Virginia, 1909, p. 74.
4. See Edgar Allan Poes Gedichte, uebertragen von Theodor Etzel, München und Leipzig, 1909.
5. Etzel's translation of The Raven is picked out for special commendation by Fritz Hippe in his Edgar Allan Poes Lyrik in Deutschland (1913). "He has succeeded," says Hippe, "as no one else has succeeded, in reproducing almost completely in German the refrain 'Nevermore' through the German 'Nie du Thor.'"
6. Among the more important treatments of Poe by Italian scholars may be mentioned "I poeti americani," by Enrico Nencioni (Nuova Antologia, August 16, 1885); "L' estetica di Edgardo Poe," by P. Jannaccone (Nuova Antologia, July 15, 1895); "Il vero Edgardo Poe" with translations of many of the poems, by Raffaele Bresciano (Palermo-Roma, 1904); and an unsigned article on the Poe centenary that appeared in Nuova Antologia for February 1, 1909, "America and England," says the latter, "are celebrating the centenary of a writer whose fame is growing more and more, Edgar Allan Poe. The country of the great poet has already several times revised its opinion of this son who highly honors it, and each revision represents an approach to truth and justice."
7. See Doctor Ferguson's American Literature in Spain (1916), New York.
8. See "El centenario de Edgard Allan Poe" (La Espana Moderna, April, 1909).
9. See "Edgar Poe et Jules Verne" (La Revue, Paris, May 15, 1909).
10. These fragments were probably, in part at least, The Murders in the Rue Morgue, translated by his intimate friend, Felix Tournachon, better known as "Nadar." Tournachon died in 1910 leaving unpublished memoirs. He was an interesting man. In the early fifties he broached the idea of a heavier-than-air flying machine, and in 1863 he carried his wife and friends in a balloon from Paris to Hanover.
11. Mourey's Poésies complètes d'Edgar Poe, 1889, remained the only complete translation of Poe's poems into French until the appearance in 1908 of Victor Orban's Poésies complètes d'Edgar Poe. Mourey's later edition of 1910 is prefaced by a letter from J. H. Ingram. It contains also the Philosophy of Composition as well as biographical and bibliographical notes.
    Excellent translations of Poe's poems have also been made by Émile Lauvrière.
12. Poe's Helen (1916), New York, p. 276.
13. Edgar Poe, sa vie et son oeuvre, Paris, 1904. The book contains 732 pages.
14. La vie d' Edgar A. Poe, Paris, 1919. Of its 290 pages 27 are given over to a translation of the poems of Mrs. Whitman that were inspired by admiration for Poe.
15. The Evening Post, N. Y., Jan. 16, 1909.
16. La vie d' Edgar A. Poe, Paris, 1919, p. 247.
17. See the article by Caroline Ticknor in The Bookman, N. Y., Sept., 1916.
18. See his Lettre-Préface in Mourey's Poésies complètes d' Edgar Poe (1910).
19. Under the Microscope (1872).
20. See The Letters of Algernon Charles Swinburne, 2 vols., edited by Edmund Gosse and Thomas James Wise (1919).
21. Alfred Lord Tennyson, a Memoir by his son, vol. II, pp. 292-293 (1897). This was said in 1883.
22. In his edition of The Poems of Poe (1881).
23. Robertson's essay on Poe, first published in Our Corner, London, 1885, and republished in New Essays Towards a Critical Method, London and New York, 1897, seems to me on the whole the ablest brief treatment of Poe (fifty-four pages) yet published in any language. It has been reproduced in Specimens of Modern English Literary Criticism, edited by William T. Brewster, New York, 1907.
24. Contemporary Review, February, 1909.