History of India/Volume 1/Chapter 22
CHAPTER XXII
SOCIAL LIFE IN THE AGE OF PHILOSOPHY
IT is in the Sutras that we first find mention of the different forms of marriage with which we are familiar from the later metrical codes of law. Vasishtha mentions six forms:—
Brahma marriage; the father pours out a libation of water and gives his daughter to a suitor, a student.
Daiva marriage; the father decks his daughter with ornaments and gives her to an officiating priest, while a sacrifice is performed.
Arsha marriage; the father gives his daughter in exchange for a cow or a bull.
Gandharva marriage; the lover takes and weds a loving maiden.
Kshatra (or Bakshasa) marriage; the bridegroom forcibly takes a maiden, destroying her relatives by force of arms.
Manusha (or Asura) marriage; the suitor purchases a damsel from her father.
The lawgiver Apastamba recognizes only these six forms of marriage ; but the older writers, Gautama and Baudhayana, sanction eight forms of marriage, adding .png)
Hindu Widows at the Mission in Bombay.
From a Photograph.
Marriages among kinsfolk were rigorously prohibited in the Philosophic Period. Vasishtha prohibits marriage between a man and a woman of the same gotra or pravara, or who are related within four degrees on the mother's side, or within six degrees on the father's side. Apastamba forbids wedlock between men and women of the same gotra, or who are related (within six degrees) on the mother's (or father's) side, but Baudhayana allows a man to marry the daughter of a maternal uncle or a paternal aunt.
The marriage of girls at a tender age was not yet prevalent in the Philosophic Period. Vasishtha says:—
"A maiden who has attained puberty shall wait for three years.
"After three years, she may take a husband of equal caste."
The marriage of widows, which was a prevalent custom in the Vedic and Brahmanic Periods, continued to prevail in the Philosophic Period, but was not looked upon with favour except in the case of child-widows, and the son of a remarried widow was often classed with adopted sons, or sons by an appointed wife or daughter.
The first great event in a boy's life seems to have .jpg)
THE VEDI, OR MARRIAGE ALTAR.
been his initiation as a student. A Brahman boy was initiated between eight and sixteen, a Kshatriya between eleven and twenty-two, and a Vaisya between twelve and twenty-four. The initiated boy then lived as a religious student in the house of his teacher for twelve, twenty-four, thirty-six, or forty-eight years, according as he wished to master one, two, three, or the four Vedas. During this period of his life he avoided all spiced food, perfumes, and articles of luxury; he tied his hair in a knot, he bore a staff and a girdle, and a cloth of flax or hemp, or even only a skin. Avoiding all places of amusement and of pleasure, restraining his senses, modest and humble, the young student went out every morning with his staff to beg for food from charitable householders in the neighbouring villages, and all that he obtained in the course of the day he placed before his teacher, tasting food only after his teacher had done with his meals. He went to the forest to fetch fuel, and evening and morning he brought water for household use. Every morning he swept and cleaned the altar, kindled the fire, and placed the sacred fuel on it; and every evening he washed his teacher's feet and rubbed him and put him to bed, before he retired to rest. Such was the humble and simple life which ancient Hindu students led, when they devoted all the energies of their mind to the acquisition of the sacred learning of their forefathers. Instruction, it is needless to repeat, was imparted by rote. The student respectfully held the hand of his teacher, and fixed his mind on the teacher and said, "Venerable sir, recite," and the Savitri (the well-known Gayatri verse of the Rig-Veda) was recited, and learned as the introduction to the study of the Vedas. From day to day new lessons were recited and learned, the student dividing his day's work between his lessons and the household work of his teacher.
When, after years of study, often under different teachers, the student at last returned to his home, he made a handsome gift to his instructors, married, and settled down as a householder. The Sutrakaras are never tired of impressing on householders the paramount duty of courtesy and hospitality towards guests, for the reception of guests is an everlasting sacrifice offered by the householder to God.
Besides the order of the student and that of the householder, there were two other orders of life, those of the ascetic (bhikshu), and the hermit (vaikhānasa). We learn from later Sanskrit literature that a typical or perfect life was the life of a man who belonged to these four orders in the successive periods of his life. But this was not the original idea, and in early times a man might have chosen to spend the whole of his life in one of these four orders. It is needless here to dwell on rules laid down for an ascetic and a hermit respectively. It will suffice to state that an ascetic shaved his head, had no property or home, practised austerities, fasted or lived on alms, wore a single garment or a skin, slept on the bare ground, wandered about from place to place, and discontinued the performance of all religious ceremonies, but never ceased to study the Veda or to meditate upon the Universal Soul. A hermit, on the other hand, though dwelling in woods, living on roots and fruits, and leading a chaste
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ASCETIC AT BENARES.
life, kindled the sacred fire and offered the morning and evening libations.
We now return to the householders, who formed the nation. For them no less than forty sacraments were prescribed, and an account of them will give us a glimpse into the religious and domestic life of the ancient Hindu.
Domestic Ceremonies. — Garbhadhana (ceremony to cause conception); Pumsavana (ceremony to cause the birth of a male child); Simantonnayana (arranging the hair of the pregnant wife); Jatakarman (ceremony on the birth of a child); naming the child; the first feeding; the tonsure of the head; the initiation; the four vows for the study of the Veda; the bath of completion of studentship; marriage; and the five sacrifices to gods, manes, men, spirits, and to Brahma.
Grihya rites, also called Pakayajnas.—Astaka, or rites performed in winter; Parvana, or new and full moon rites; Sraddha, or sacrifices to departed ancestors; Sravani, a rite performed in the Sravana month; Agrahayani, performed in the Agrahayana month; Chaitri, performed in the month of Chaitra; and Asvayugi, performed in the month of Asvina.
Srauta rites.—These are again divided into two classes, Haviryajna, performed with offerings of rice, milk, butter, meat, and the like, and the Somayajna, performed with libations of the Soma-juice.
The Haviryajna rites are Agnyadhana, Agnihotra, Darsapurnamasa, Agrayana, Chaturmasya, Nirudhapasubandha, and Sautramani.
The Somayajna rites are Agnishtoma, Atyagnishtoma, Ukthya, Shodasin, Vajapeya, Atiratra, and Aptoryama.
Such were the forty sacraments prescribed for householders; but far above the performance of these sacrifices was esteemed the possession of virtue and goodness, which alone led to heaven, so that Gautama says:—
"He who is sanctified by these forty sacraments, but whose soul is destitute of the eight good qualities, will not be united with Brahma, nor does he reach His heaven.
"But he, forsooth, who is sanctified by only a few of these forty sacraments, and whose soul is endowed with the excellent qualities, will be united with Brahma and will dwell in His heaven."
We will now say a few words with regard to those of the forty sacraments which illustrate Hindu life. They include, as stated above, domestic ceremonies, Grihya rites, and Srauta rites. The Srauta rites, which have been briefly described in our account of the Brahmanic Age, throw little light on the manners and life of the people. The domestic ceremonies and Grihya rites, on the other hand, give us glimpses of inestimable value of the manners of the ancient Hindus. The most important of the domestic ceremonies are marriage, ceremonies performed during pregnancy, birth of a child, the first feeding of a child, tonsure, initiation, and return from school on the completion of education.
Marriage.—The bridegroom sent messengers to the house of the girl's father, and if the proposal pleased both parties, the promise of marriage was ratified, both parties touching a full vessel into which flowers, fried grain, barley, and gold had been put, and reciting a formula. The bridegroom then performed a sacrifice. On the appointed day, the bride's relations bathed her with water fragrant with the choicest fruits and scents, clad her in a newly dyed garment, and caused her to sit down by a fire while the family priest performed a sacrifice. The bridegroom, who had also bathed and gone through auspicious ceremonies, was escorted by young unwidowed women to the house of his bride.
The actual marriage ceremony varied in detail in different localities, but agreed in the essential points. The bridegroom took the hand of the bride, and led her three times round a fire, reciting certain verses, such as, "Come, let us marry. Let us beget offspring. Loving, bright, with genial mind, may we live a hundred autumns." Each time he made her tread a millstone, saying, "Like a stone be firm." The bride's brother or guardian filled her hands with ājya, or fried grain, which she sacrificed to the fire. The bridegroom then caused the bride to step forward seven steps, reciting suitable words. The going round the fire, treading the stone, sacrificing the fried grain, and stepping forward seven steps, constituted the principal forms of the marriage ceremony. "And she should dwell that night," says Asvalayana, "in the house of an old Brahman woman whose husband is alive and whose children are alive. When she sees the Polar Star, the star of Arundhati, and the Seven Rishis (Ursa Major), let her break silence and say, 'May my husband live, and I get offspring.'" In like manner Sankhayana says, "Let them sit silent, when the sun has set, until the Polar Star appears. He shows her the star with the words, 'Firm be thou, thriving with me.' Let her say, 'I see the polar star; may I obtain offspring.' Through a period of three nights let them refrain from conjugal intercourse."
Pregnancy.—Various were the rites performed during the pregnancy of a wife. In the first place, there was the Garbhadhana rite, which was supposed to secure conception. The Pumsavana rite was supposed to determine the male sex of the child, and the Garbharakshana secured the unborn child from danger, while the Simantonnayana, performed, according to Asvalayana, in the fourth month, and according to Sankhayana, in the seventh month of pregnancy, or even, according to Gobhila, in the fourth, sixth, or eighth month, was a more interesting ceremony, and consisted in the husband's affectionately parting his wife's hair, with certain rites.
Birth of a child.—The rites performed on this occasion were called Jatakarman, or birth ceremony, Medhajananam, or the production of intelligence, and Ayushya, or rite for prolonging life. On this occasion the father gave the child a secret name of an even number of syllables if the child was a male, and an uneven number if it was a female and only the father and mother knew that name. On the tenth day, when the mother was convalescent, an appellative for common use was given to the child. "The name of a Brahman should end in Sarman (e.g. Vishnu Sarman), that of a Kshatriya in Varman (e.g. Lakshmi Varman), and that of a Vaisya in Gupta (e.g. Chandra Gupta)."
First feeding of the child with solid food.—This is the well-known Annaprasana ceremony. The child seems to have been allowed a greater variety of food in the olden days than at the present time. Thus, Asvalayana and Sankhayana declare that he should partake of "goat's flesh, if he be desirous of nourishment; flesh of partridge, if desirous of holy lustre; boiled rice with ghee, if desirous of splendour," to which Paraskara adds such foods as "flesh of that bird called Bharadvaji, if he wishes fluency of speech, and fish, if swiftness be desired."
Tonsure.—This was performed when the child was one year old, according to Sankhayana and Paraskara, or when the child was in his third year, according to Asvalayana and Gobhila. The child's head was shaved with a razor with the recitation of certain Vedic verses (but without them in the case of a girl), and some hair was left and arranged according to the custom of the family.
Initiation. This was an important ceremony, and was performed when a boy was entrusted by his father or guardian to the teacher for education. The age of initiation, as we have seen before, varied in the case of Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas, and the sacred thread was worn on this occasion by all the three castes.
Return from school.—The student, after he had finished his education, returned to his home, and if he had no ancestral house to go to, had to build a house. This, too, was accompanied by a ceremony, and by the utterance of the hymns of the Rig-Veda to Vastospati, the lord of dwelling-houses, as well as to other divinities. Then followed marriage and the setting up of fires, and the student became a householder, and had other and graver duties to perform.
The most important of the Grihya rites was the Sraddha, or monthly offering to the departed fathers, and the feeding of Brahmans. "Brahmans endowed with learning, moral character, and correct conduct," were invited, and sat down "as representatives of the fathers" to whom the oblations were offered. The sacrificer then offered the Arghya water to the fathers with the words, "Father, this is thy Arghya; Grandfather, this is thy Arghya; Great-grandfather, this is thy Arghya." Gifts of perfumes, garlands, incense, lights, and clothes were then made to the Brahmans. With the permission of the Brahmans, food of the Sthalipaka prepared for the Pindapitriyajna was smeared with ghee and sacrificed in the fire, or in the hands of the Brahmans, together with other food. And when the sacrificer saw that the Brahmans were satiated, he recited the Vedic verse, "They have eaten, they have enjoyed themselves."
Parvana.—This was the rite observed on the new and full moon days, and consisted in fasting, as well as in offering cooked oblations to the deities of those days, with appropriate mantras.
Sravani.—This was a rite observed on the full moon day of the month of Sravana in the rainy season, and the idea was to propitiate serpents, which multiply in India in the rains.
Asvayugi.—This was a rite performed on the full .jpg)
PROPITIATION OF THE SERPENTS.
"On the full moon day of Asvayaga a milk-rice oblation to Indra.
"Having sacrificed Ajya with the words, 'Hail to the two Asvins! Hail to the two Asvayugas! Hail to the full moon of Asvayuga! Hail to the autumn! Hail to Prajapati! Hail to the tawny one!'
"He shall sacrifice a mixture of curds and butter with this (Vedic) hymn, 'The cows come hither,' verse by verse.
"That night they let the calves join their mothers.
"Then feeding of the Brahmans."
It is impossible not to suspect from this account that the rite is essentially agricultural, and this interpretation is confirmed when Paraskara tells us that the rite was to be followed by a sacrifice to Sita, the goddess of the field furrow.
Agrahayani.—This rite was performed on the full moon day of the Agrahayana month. This particular night was considered to be the consort of the year, or the image of the year, and adoration was offered to the year, to Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Idvatsara, and to Vatsara, terms designating the different years of the quinquennial period of Yuga.
Ashtaka.—These rites received their name from the fact that they were performed on the eighth day of the three or four successive dark fortnights after the full moon of Agrahayana. Oblations were made with vegetables, flesh, and cakes respectively. Gobhila quoted different opinions as to the object of these oblations, and declared that they might be for the gratification of Agni, or of the Fathers, or of Prajapati, or of the season gods, or of all the gods. It is more probable, however, that they were suggested by the winter season, which is an enjoyable season in India, when the Aman rice is harvested and wheat and barley thrive, and when cakes and flesh and vegetables are not only acceptable to the "season gods," but are also highly gratifying to men.
Chaitri, the last rite in the year, was performed on the full moon day of Chaitra, when Indra and Agni and Rudra and the Nakshatras, or constellations, were propitiated.