History of Zoroastrianism/Chapter 7

by Maneckji Nusservanji Dhalla

 

CHAPTER VII

 

MAZDA'S MINISTERING ANGELS

 

Amesha Spentas in the making. Zarathushtra holds before mankind six, cardinal virtues of Ahura Mazda for emulation. Primarily, they are pure abstractions, etherealized moral concepts, symbolic ideals, abstract figures. They have no individuality, no characteristics, no mythology as the Indo-Iranian divinities have. Zarathushtra aims at replacing the divine beings that owe their origin to some natural phenomena and later rise to moral stature, by spiritual ideals. The heavenly beings that he finds honoured among his people are such ancient beings that have evolved from the various aspects of nature. Such are Mithra and his associates that hold spiritual sway over the hearts of the Iranian peoples. The prophet substitutes for these august concrete beings his worshipful attributes of Ahura Mazda. In the heavenly hierarchy they represent altogether a novel feature. They are entirely unlike the gods whom mankind had been accustomed to worship under various names before his advent. He names these divine qualifications Vohu Manah, 'Good Mind,' Asha, 'Righteousness,' Khshathra, 'Divine Kingdom,' Armaiti, 'Devotion,' Haurvatat, 'Perfection,' and Ameretat, 'Immortality.' They form Ahura Mazda's being. That is, Vohu Manah is Ahura Mazda's Good Mind or Good Thought, Asha is his Righteousness and so are others his different virtues. This idealistic phase that Zarathushtra puts before man does not long retain its character. The abstract virtues soon get detached from Ahura Mazda and assume thin personification. In two instances we meet with the appellative terms Mazdāo(schā) Ahurāonghō, 'Ahura Mazda and his associates,'^[1] like the Vedic plural expressions Varunas and Rudras.^[2] Here we witness the Amesha Spentas or the Holy Immortals of the post-Gathic period in the making.

These six divine attributes which we have said tend towards forming the heavenly host of Ahura Mazda, it is suggested, have originated under the influence of the Vedic Adityas.^[3] Unlike the seven Gathic divine appellations, the Adityas, however, are variously spoken of as six or seven or eight or even twelve in number. They include great Vedic divinities like Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, Indra, and others and even sun and moon and fire. Zarathushtra has set his face against them. His spiritual impersonations of the godhead are, it seems to us, a class by themselves and are particular to him.

Vohu Manah, Asha, and Khshathra are neuter nouns taken in the later Avestan as male members of the divine hierarchy and Armaiti, Haurvatat, and Ameretat are feminine names. They occur in the different Gathic stanzas individually or two or three or four or more together indefinitely. The hexad, or taken along with Ahura Mazda, the heptad, is not fixed in the Gathas as we find it in the later Avesta, where it is expressly said that the Holy Immortals are seven. Yet we have instances where Ahura Mazda and his six epithets are mentioned together.^[4] Asha stands first in the number of times he is mentioned and Vohu Manah, though first of the heavenly host, comes second They are followed by Khshathra and Armaiti respectively. Haurvatat and Ameretat, who invariably occur together, make up the rear. With the exception of Vohu Manah, whose name is always a fixed compound with Vohu, 'Good,' qualifying Manah, 'Mind,' all the others have not the stereotyped epithets that the four of them are given at the later period. At times Vohu Manah's epithet designating his goodness is transferred to Khshathra.^[5] As the process towards the personification of Ahura Mazda's attributes has already begun, it is often extremely difficult to decide whether the qualitative divine expressions stand for personified beings or as abstract nouns designating certain virtues in application to Ahura Mazda himself or to man.

The prominent feature of these six abstract attributes when they have fully grown into Ahura Mazda's ministering angels is the twofold character of work they are assigned to perform. In addition to a specific virtue that each represents on the spiritual side, a material object is put under his or her direct guardianship on the physical side This physical aspect of their functions is most marked in the later period. Its origin, however, can be traced in the Gathas where we find a beginning already made of associating some one material creation with every one of them. We shall now deal with them individually.

 

Vohu Manah

The first in Ahura Mazda's creation. When Ahura Mazda was with none beside him, in his supreme isolation, he evolved in his mind the thought of creating the universe. He named his first creation after his mind and called him Vohu Manah, Good Mind^[6] Zarathushtra fondly speaks of him as Ahura Mazda's son.^[7] He is often addressed in the Gathas in the superlative as Vahishta Manah, Best Mind.^[8] Occasionally, Vohu Manah is converted into Vohu Mainyu, Good Spirit^[9] or Vahishta Mainyu, Best Spirit.^[10] It has to be noted that Vohu Mainyu or Vahishta Mainyu has nothing in common with Spenta Mainyu or the Holy Spirit, the first of the two Primeval Spirits of Ahura Mazda.

Vohu Manah is Ahura Mazda's Good Thought. The ethical system of Zarathushtra has the triad of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds as its basis Good words and good deeds proceed from good thoughts and good thoughts are inspired in man by Vohu Manah. In all his waking hours man thinks and thinks incessantly He thinks useful thoughts and wise thoughts and great thoughts and wholesome thoughts and kindly thoughts and virtuous thoughts and good thoughts. But he thinks also idle thoughts and foolish thoughts and mean thoughts and malicious thoughts and cruel thoughts and vicious thoughts and evil thoughts The mind soars high and wings its way in the realm of righteousness or it sinks low and grovels in the mire of wickedness. Man thinks thoughts, but thoughts make man. Thoughts make him a human being, a saint, and an angel; and thoughts make him an animal, a sinner, and a demon. Man is thought materialized in word and deed. Vohu Manah is the ideal that man as a thinking being has to realize.

Vohu Manah symbolizes Ahura Mazda's wisdom. Man thinks but he reasons besides, and his reasoning raises him above the level of the animal world. The Gathas employ khratu and chisti to designate wisdom. They do not, however, classify wisdom as the later Avesta distinguishes the innate wisdom from the acquired wisdom. The loftiest ideal for man upon earth is to be like unto Ahura Mazda and it is through the wisdom of Vohu Manah that man can realize it.^[11] Zarathushtra invokes Ahura Mazda to grant him the wisdom of Vohu Manah,^[12] and longs to be acquainted with the decrees of Vohu Manah.^[13] He desires to know to whom among his followers will the wisdom of Vohu Manah descend.^[14] The wise man of good understanding performs deeds that are pleasing to Vohu Manah.^[15] The enlightenment that Vohu Manah gives enables the devout to practise the doctrines of weal and woe.^[16] They pray for thoughts to turn where wisdom abides.^[17] Mazda is implored to fulfil the desires of the wise who are devoted to Vohu Manah.^[18]

Vohu Manah's grace. Zarathushtra adores Vohu Manah with songs of praise,^[19] and teaches his followers to offer him praise.^[20] He asks Ahura Mazda to teach him how best he could inspire men to the deeds of Vohu Manah.^[21] He tells his heavenly father that he will always work for the furtherance of the domain of Vohu Manah,^[22] and adds that as long as he has strength left in him he will, in union with Vohu Manah, lead mankind on the path of righteousness.^[23] He implores Ahura Mazda to come down to him through Vohu Manah.^[24] Through Vohu Manah does the prophet long to reach Ahura Mazda,^[25] and through the performance of the deeds pleasing unto Vohu Manah does he long to glorify and reach his maker.^[26] Pouruchisti is advised to seek Vohu Manah's fellowship.^[27] The devout seek to propitiate Vohu Manah to win his kinship.^[28] Ahura Mazda is besought by them to be the revealer of Vohu Manah unto them.^[29] When enlightenment descends upon Zarathushtra, he longs to see Vohu Manah,^[30] and prays that he may come to help him.^[31] His yearning to have a glimpse of the divine mind is satisfied. Vohu Manah comes to him and illumines his mind.^[32] The prophet seeks to know from him the rules of life that lead to happiness.^[33] Vohu Manah teaches him the working of Ahura Mazda.^[34] He asks Mazda to teach him through Vohu Manah his secret doctrines.^[35]

Life led according to the promptings of Vohu Manah is life lived well and Zarathushtra prays for the life of Good Mind.^[36] The blessings of Vohu Manah form the precious reward for man and are gained through the performance of good deeds inspired by righteousness.^[37] Zarathushtra longs to know through Vohu Manah the straight paths of life.^[38] There are the paths of Vohu Manah and Mazda is invoked to reveal them.^[39] Ahura Mazda grants the prayer and speaks about the paths of Vohu Manah to Zarathushtra.^[40] Wicked persons mislead men who strive to live an upright life and follow the paths of Vohu Manah.^[41] The prophet warns his followers against the evil teachers who keep them back from appreciating the worth of acquisition of Vohu Manah.^[42] The evil-minded Bendva defies the counsel of Vohu Manah.^[43] The faithful are eager to learn how they could keep far from those that do not seek Vohu Manah's counsel.^[44] The evil doers are separated from Vohu Manah.^[45] Vohu Manah leaves those who do not practise righteousness,^[46] and righteousness flees from those who follow not Vohu Manah, in the same manner as noxious creatures fly from men.^[47] The pious therefore declare that they will not annoy Vohu Manah.^[48] Vohu Manah is dispenser of the riches of the well disciplined mind and Zarathushtra longs to win it through righteousness.^[49] The pious invoke Mazda to reward their efforts to lead righteous lives by bestowing upon them the riches of Vohu Manah.^[50] It is the teachers of evil that prevent men from valuing these riches.^[51] The prophet prays for the gifts of Vohu Manah for himself and his associates.^[52] Vohu Manah's reward is an incomparable blessing.^[53] Ahura Mazda is asked to grant the wishes of those who are worthy of Vohu Manah's reward owing to their righteousness.^[54] Those that are good unto men who endeavour to lead righteous lives will share the blessings of Vohu Manah.^[55] They are religious in truth who embrace the good thoughts of Vohu Manah and base their actions of life upon them; such persons win prosperity and happiness.^[56] The prophet prays for chieftainship through Vohu Manah.^[57] Man obtains power through goodness of his mind and he invokes Ahura Mazda to grant him that power through Vohu Manah.^[58] Zarathushtra asks Vohu Manah to bestow power upon his disciples.^[59] Girt with such power, man can wage a successful war against wickedness, therefore do the votaries beseech Vohu Manah to endow them with it.^[60] Mazda gives power unto the righteous as reward through Vohu Manah.^[61] He is invoked to give endurance and durability through Vohu Manah.^[62] These he gives and in addition he bequeaths upon the good, perfection and immortality.^[63] Those who in obedience to the teachings of the prophet do the deeds of Vohu Manah are given good abodes and joy in life,^[64] and perfection and immortality.^[65] Whoso befriends Mazda through thoughts and deeds will be given steadfastness of Vohu Manah.^[66] Vohu Manah protects the poor.^[67] Through him does Ahura Mazda know the deserts of mankind.^[68] Zarathushtra asks Mazda to let him know the award he will give him through Vohu Manah.^[69] Those in whose life righteousness and devotion are blended, further the dominion of Vohu Manah.^[70] The righteous bring prosperity to the world through the deeds of Vohu Manah.^[71] Mazda awards his bounty to those who through deeds of Vohu Manah work for the world.^[72] He promotes the best wishes of the truthful workers through Vohu Manah.^[73] The prophet promises to give through Vohu Manah the best that is in his power to those who rejoice him by their goodness.^[74] One acquires the best of the Holy Spirit through the words of Vohu Manah and the devotion of Armaiti.^[75] Vohu Manah furthers the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.^[76] He prospers the possessions of those that rejoice Zarathushtra.^[77] He welcomes the Turanian Fryans to the joy of Mazda.^[78] Vohu Manah will announce the advent of the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.^[79] He will establish it at the end of time for those who have helped righteousness to rout wickedness.^[80] He will come to the help of the Saoshyants at the Renovation.^[81]

Vohu Manah's relation to paradise. This becomes most marked in the later period. The beginning towards this phase is already to be noted in the Gathas Vahishta Manah or Best Thought is spoken of as the paradise itself where the righteous will go after death.^[82] Vohu Manah dwells in the heavenly home along with Mazda and Asha.^[83] Paradise is said to be the heritage of Vohu Manah.^[84] Zarathushtra knows the rewards of deeds done for Ahura Mazda and desires to lead his soul to paradise through Vohu Manah.^[85] Those who oppose the evil deeds of the wicked who are wilfully blind and deaf to the teachings of the prophet, will go to the heavenly abode of Vohu Manah.^[86] The mighty power of Vohu Manah will be manifested when Mazda will deal out justice to the righteous and the wicked through his fire.^[87] Through the words of Vohu Manah the prophet honours those who have worked for the divine purpose and whom Mazda will therefore gather in his abode.^[88] The pious pray for long life of felicity in the paradisaic domain of Vohu Manah.^[89]

Vohu Manah in association with cattle. Vohu Manah's connection with animal life is hinted in the Gathas. This trait becomes much emphasized in the later period when he becomes the genius of cattle and takes the animal world under his protection, as a secondary part of his function as the premier angel of Ahura Mazda. When Geush Urvan, as the genius of the sentient beings, living upon earth, complains of the wrath and rapine to which the animal kingdom is subjected, Vohu Manah consoles her with the gladsome news that the creator of the world was sending Zarathushtra, his messenger, to teach mankind to protect the cattle and kine.^[90] In consultation with Vohu Manah, it is said, Ahura Mazda created cattle and pastures to feed them.^[91] Vohu Manah is the protector of cattle.^[92] They are a precious asset of Vohu Manah and give durability and endurance to mankind.^[93] It is through the good understanding of Vohu Manah, that men are inspired to work for cattle.^[94]

 

Asha

The Indo-Iranians recognize a universal order prevailing in the world. Life upon the earth reveals to man that a smooth and graceful and ordered movement goes on all around him in nature. Spring and summer, autumn and winter, with their ceaseless seasonal succession of changes, take their unvarying course. The tides rise and fall punctually. The dawn and morn and noon and evening and night go their uninterrupted daily round. The dying day gives birth to the night. The night hangs its myriad of silvery lamps to lighten the darkness. The dawn breaks to resurrect the day and the day goes the perennial round of its birth. The heavens and their glittering hosts, the sun and the moon and the stars and the planets march at a regulated space. Despite the casual freaks and caprices, the laws governing the movements of nature seem to be immutable. This unfailing regularity of nature led the Indo-Iranians to discern the fact that a stable order prevailed in the universe which ensured its existence. They called it ṛta. They emulated this universal order and introduced it in all their human activities. They offered prayers to gods, they sacrificed to them seasonal offerings. All this was to be done at fixed times, reciting specific formulas, chanted in a prescribed manner and with regulated movements of sacred implements. The ceremonials were thus to be performed in accordance with the established rules and under a fixed order. This order was ṛta in rituals or rite, a word derived from the same stem. Thus step by step they advanced higher and saw that human life can best be lived when man's relations with his neighbours, his duty towards his fellowmen and towards the heavenly beings were regulated according to fixed laws. Thus they came to recognition of a basic moral order regulating human affairs and understood by ṛta employed in ethical matters as right or righteousness, word, of the same significance. Varuna, Mitra, and the Adityas, as also Agni and Soma, came to be regarded as the upholders of the moral order.

Zarathushtra adopts Asha, the variant of rta. A cardinal word which figures most prominently in the Gathas is Asha. Its more familiar and widely known Iranian variant is arta, areta, equivalent to the Vedic ṛta. Words derived from this stem must have been freely used in Western Asia and surrounding countries about four thousand years ago. We gather from the clay tablets bearing cuneiform inscriptions discovered at Tell-el-Amarna in Middle Egypt and the great find of tablets at Boghaz-Keui in Asia Minor that Dushratta, a Mitanni king, was ruling in Syria in about 1600 b.c. In his letter to his brother-in-law Amenhetep III of Egypt he mentions his brothers who bear the names Artashumara and Artatama. His grandfather also was named Artatama. Zarathushtra thus finds the stem arta or areta in vogue, but we do not find him using it in the Gathas. He uses its variant asha instead and makes it the basic foundation for the structure of his moral philosophy. The Later Avestan works follow him in their general use of the word. It is in the Old Persian inscriptions, however, that we find the use of arta as an element of proper names. The Pahlavi writers make a more frequent use of the arta form than of asha.

Asha stands for Ahura Mazda's righteousness. Ahura Mazda is the father of Asha, says Zarathushtra.^[95] He created Asha through his wisdom.^[96] Asha is of one will with Ahura Mazda.^[97] He is the counsellor of Ahura Mazda,^[98] and lives in one abode with Ahura Mazda and Vohu Manah.^[99] He is given the attribute Vahishta, 'best.'^[100] It is not employed in the Gathas as his fixed title, as it becomes in the later Avesta where Asha Vahishta is used as a compound word.

The Vedic poet asks why does the sun fall not from the sky, why do waters of the rivers flowing into the ocean not fill it, where do the stars go during the day and similar questions pertaining to the working of the cosmic order in nature. Zarathushtra, in like manner, asks Ahura Mazda to tell him who is the father of Asha, the embodiment of the order ruling the world, who has determined the path of the sun and the stars, and by whom does the moon wax and wane,^[101] who upholds the earth and the firmament from falling, who has made waters and plants and who has given swiftness to winds and clouds, who has made light and darkness, and morning and noon and night.^[102] In one place we find him telling Ahura Mazda that the sun and the dawn take their course for his glorification through Asha.^[103] Asha's one epithet is the shining one.^[104]

A few passages lead us to trace some connection between Asha and the ritualistic order Zarathushtra speaks of himself as a zaotar, Vedic hotar, sacrificing priest, and says that he learns the straight or orderly way through Asha.^[105] Ceremonial offerings are made unto Ahura Mazda and Asha.^[106] Ahura Mazda knows those who are best in the celebration of the Yasna sacrifice according to Asha.^[107] The devout make ceremonial offerings to Asha along with Ahura Mazda.^[108]

Zarathushtra best exemplifies Asha's righteousness in his life. Zarathushtra is pure in body, mind, and spirit He is the embodiment of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds He thinks, speaks, and acts righteousness. He lives in the atmosphere of righteousness and radiates it all around him. He is the very righteousness itself living in flesh for the good of mankind. Righteousness sustains him in his hardships and trials. When his great prophetic work is beset with untold difficulties; when the prophet of Ahura faces opposition on all sides; when friends desert his company and kinsmen abandon his cause; when the rulers of the land look upon him with suspicion and the wicked seek to compass his ruin; when, friendless and forsaken, hissed and hooted, ridiculed and persecuted, he roams about the villages and towns of Iran, he turns his eager eyes to Mazda and Asha in search of inward peace, and obtains it.^[109] Reduced to the verge of the direst poverty, Zarathushtra does not seek earthly riches, but the imperishable wealth of the spirit, that is, righteousness.

Righteousness is the pivot around which the ethics of Zarathushtra revolves. Asha is the highest word in the Zoroastrian terminology, and its derivative ashavan forms the epithet of the man who is most saintly and possesses the noblest character. The term is applied to Ahura Mazda, Zarathushtra, and to all who are religious. Righteousness is the will of Ahura Mazda; it is the rule of man's duty, and to be righteous is synonymous with being religious. The law of righteousness is the norm to which the faithful has to conform his life in this world. Good thoughts, good words, and good deeds form the ethical foundation upon which righteousness rests and the basis upon which the entire structure of the system of the Mazdayasnian philosophy is reared. This noble truth, at once so pithy and simple, is accessible to all. It does not appeal to the intellectual few and leave aside the ignorant many; nor does it remain the prerogative of a few thinkers and philosophers; but it can reach all and become the cherished possession of the prince and peasant alike. Every Zoroastrian child imbibes the triad of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds at its mother's breast.

Zarathushtra longs to see Asha. Zarathushtra yearns to make Asha his own along with Ahura Mazda and Vohu Manah.^[110] He longs to see Asha and his heavenly associates.^[111] He is eager to behold him coming with the devotion of Armaiti.^[112] Through the deeds prompted by the good thoughts of Vohu Manah he aspires to reach Asha.^[113] He implores Asha to come unto him along with Ahura Mazda and Vohu Manah.^[114] He advises his daughter Pouruchisti to seek fellowship with Asha.^[115] He prays that Hvogva may make Asha her own.^[116] He longs for the day when Asha will come among the Fryan nobility through Armaiti.^[117] He counsels marrying couples that as husbands and wives they should strive to excel one another in their pursuit of Asha.^[118] Asha is approached through the practice of noble deeds according to the primeval laws ordained by Ahura Mazda.^[119] Zarathushtra looks for devotion to come with Asha among his followers.^[120] Those who live in communion with Asha reap the best reward.^[121] Zarathushtra prays for the blessings of Asha.^[122] Asha is asked to grant that blessing which forms the reward of Vohu Manah.^[123] Zarathushtra, says Ahura Mazda, is the one man who has heard the divine commandments and undertaken to live and work for the furtherance of Asha's righteousness.^[124] The prophet of Ahura Mazda declares that as long as he shall have vigour and strength he will urge all to yearn for Asha,^[125] and work for the spread of Asha's precepts,^[126] He adds further that he shall protect Asha's righteousness all his life.^[127] The pious everywhere welcome Asha's manifestation,^[128] and the wise uphold him through their words and deeds.^[129] Whoso spreads Asha's righteousness in the house and district is like unto Ahura Mazda.^[130] Those that are best unto the righteous ones shall be in the pastures of Asha and Vohu Manah.^[131]

Asha's work. Zarathushtra knows Ahura Mazda through Asha.^[132] He prays for the good deeds of the Holy Spirit and the wisdom of Vohu Manah.^[133] He asks Ahura Mazda to give help through Asha,^[134] and beseeches him to grant the desires of those who are devoted to Asha.^[135] Ahura Mazda gives riches of Vohu Manah through Asha,^[136] and Zarathushtra seeks to learn how the riches can be obtained.^[137] Those who put down violence and strife gain Vohu Manah's reward through Asha.^[138] He is implored to come through Asha and Vohu Manah,^[139] and asked to give mighty power through Asha.^[140] Those who practise righteousness win power as reward from Ahura Mazda through Vohu Manah.^[141] Zarathushtra asks Ahura Mazda what reward will be given him through Asha and Vohu Manah.^[142] These rewards are the blessings of both worlds given by Ahura Mazda through Asha.^[143] Zarathushtra asks Asha together with Vohu Manah about the rules of life that lead to happiness.^[144] Ahura Mazda sees open and secret faults of men through Asha.^[145] Kinship with Vohu Manah is sought through Asha.^[146] Ahura Mazda wields power between the rival factions of righteousness and wickedness through Asha.^[147] Through Asha and Vohu Manah Ahura Mazda apportions vigour and durability, weal and immortality unto those who practise righteousness and good thinking.^[148] Through Asha's righteousness does the world prosper by deeds prompted by Vohu Manah's good thoughts.^[149] Through Asha again is Ahura Mazda's help sought that Vohu Manah may come.^[150] Ahura Mazda is implored to reveal knowledge of the path of Vohu Manah through Asha.^[151] The creator of the world confers with Asha to know about a lord who can alleviate the sufferings of the kine.^[152] Zarathushtra seeks to know through Vohu Manah what Asha said to the creator.^[153] Ahura Mazda is asked to give long life which is Asha's gift.^[154] The pious declare that they will never provoke the wrath of Asha.^[155]

Ahura Mazda asks Zarathustra to seek information from Asha.^[156] Asha gives counsel to those who listen to him.^[157] Wisdom exalts communities through Asha's righteousness.^[158] Ahura Mazda knows what is best for man in this life through Asha.^[159] He teaches his best doctrines through Asha.^[160] Armaiti is asked to enlighten the conscience of men through Asha.^[161] Men of good understanding know Armaiti's devotion as the source of Asha's righteousness.^[162] Asha and Armaiti are united in the heavenly realms.^[163] Ahura Mazda has devised his creed with Asha that Vishtaspa embraces.^[164] Asha gives power to his zealous adherents.^[165] He furthers men's possessions.^[166] Men make the pastures prosper through the practice of Asha's righteousness.^[167] The wicked strive to hinder the good work of those who further Asha's righteousness by prospering the cattle by their diligence.^[168] Ahura Mazda created plants for the cattle.^[169] Diligent persons gain cattle through Asha.^[170] The prophet is awarded precious animals and weal and immortality by Ahura Mazda through Asha.^[171]

The path of righteousness. The Rig Veda refers to the path of ṛta.^[172] The Gathas similarly speak of the path of Asha, righteousness, and the idea, as we shall see later, is developed in the Later Avesta. The path of righteousness leads to paradise and the wicked souls, we are told, tremble at the Bridge of Judgment because they have deviated from the path of Asha through their words and deeds.^[173] Ahura Mazda dwells in the straight paths and Zarathushtra seeks their knowledge through Asha.^[174] Deviation from the path of righteousness spells man's destruction. Zarathushtra exhorts his hearers that every man and woman is free to choose for himself or herself the path of righteousness or the path of wickedness. The decision between the two ways of life rests with the individual. Man is the arbiter of his destiny. He has the power and freedom to choose between truth and falsehood, righteousness and wickedness, good and evil. He is responsible for the moral choice he makes and is consequently responsible for his actions If he makes the right choice and embraces righteousness, he will reap its reward, but if, as a free agent, he chooses wickedness, the accountability will be his and his own daena or self will lead him to retribution.

The discipline of the individual in righteousness. The prophet inculcates righteousness in his teachings, and strictly enjoins his followers to combat wickedness. By his birthright man belongs to the world of righteousness and is sent into this world for its furtherance and for the destruction of the world of wickedness. He is a friend of the righteous and their righteousness, but a foe of the wicked and their wickedness. It is expressly said that he alone is righteous who is a friend to the righteous; but he who, through maudlin sentimentality, is good unto the wicked and palliates his wickedness is to be considered wicked, for by failing to do his duty he puts a premium on wickedness.^[175] To condone evil in a wicked person is a capitulation to evil. Before the individual sets out to fight wickedness in the outer world, he has first to establish order in his inner world. Concord and not discord, order and not disorder, righteousness and not wickedness, should be his constant inward experience. With strict discipline he has to work for the spiritual development of his self. He is taught to subjugate his passions, eradicate evil thoughts from his mind, and conquer the animal in him by an incessant warfare with the forces of wickedness. The path of righteousness leads to the abode of Ahura Mazda.^[176] But the path is not without its difficulties and trials. Firm resolution, strong will, and sustained effort are required before one can successfully tread it and reach the final goal. It needs no effort to be wicked and be a passive victim of the flesh, but it does take a hero to be righteous and live for the spirit. There are tempting pitfalls and alluring snares that beguile the devotee and lead him astray to the path of wickedness. The quest is fraught with great difficulties. But then the prize it brings is also matchless. The goal is not easy to reach. Many more are the chances of misses than of hits, and the aspirant has to try again and again before he can successfully strike the mark. Our attempt may prove fruitless for the time being, but there is merit in having aimed at realizing the ideal. If we win, it is good. If we lose, it is also good.

Man has to keep himself pure and clean bodily, mentally, and spiritually. Purity of body and mind is the best thing for man in life.^[177] It strengthens righteousness and sanctity. The blending of the virtues of Vohu Manah and Armaiti in the life of man makes him righteous The fusion of the noble qualities both of the head and heart make the individual righteous. Vohu Manah purifies the mind, Armaiti sanctifies the heart. Vohu Manah's knowledge enlightens the world, Armaiti's devotion ennobles it. Without knowledge man is poor indeed, but without devotion he courts death in spirit. Knowledge teaches the spirit the philosophy of life, devotion lends to the spirit the zest to act it, and the true religion begins with this acting. The philosopher may think of Ahura Mazda, the metaphysician may speculate about his origin, but the devout actually imitates him in action. Knowledge gives a right view of life, teaches man about his relations to his Heavenly Father and the universe, and creates ideals for him; but devotion strives to realize these. Knowledge is good, wisdom is better; but wisdom tinged with devotion is best. The wise knows Mazda, the devout owns Mazda; and the blending of the virtues of both makes man the consummate one, the saint, the ashavan or righteous one.

Righteousness will win over wickedness. The creed of Asha leads to felicity, whereas the opposite way of wickedness brings destruction.^[178] Those who follow the ways of wickedness destroy the world of Asha's righteousness.^[179] Zarathushtra seeks from Asha and his heavenly associates power with which he and his followers may smite wickedness.^[180] Asha's righteousness leaves evil doers who embrace not devotion and good thinking, just as wild beasts flee from men.^[181] Vohu Manah leaves those who think not of Asha.^[182] Ahura Mazda is invoked to teach how the faithful can drive away the Druj and those persons who, in defiance of the divine precepts, follow not Asha.^[183] The prophet asks Ahura Mazda how best he can put wickedness in the hands of righteousness and bring punishment unto those who embrace wickedness.^[184] Vohu Manah will establish the divine kingdom of Ahura Mazda for those who vanquish wickedness and deliver it into the hands of Asha.^[185] The world will ultimately embrace righteousness through the efficacious teachings of the Saviours of the world and Ahura Mazda is asked to declare when that happy day will dawn over the world.^[186] Zarathushtra tells Ahura Mazda that his divine purpose will be accomplished and his name will be glorified when as ordained by him both men and demons will see at the end of the world that Asha triumphs and his righteousness smites wickedness and the world will be blessed with the happy tidings.^[187] He fervently hopes for the period when every individual m his or her own capacity will embrace and act righteousness and will thus make the entire world of humanity gravitate towards Asha. In this consists the final victory of good over evil, and the Divine Kingdom of Ahura Mazda will come when righteousness wholly pervades the universe. All, therefore, have to contribute to this mighty work. The righteous ones living in different ages and at different places form the members of one righteous group, inasmuch as they are all actuated by one and the same motive and work for the common cause. Though differentiated by time and place, as also by their respective tenements of clay, they are one in spirit, and work for the inauguration of the Kingdom of Righteousness.

Fire is the visible symbol of righteousness. Zarathushtra says that the best offerings that the pious can make to the fire of Ahura Mazda are the righteous deeds inspired by Asha and proclaims that as long as he has vitality left in him he will think of Asha whenever he will carry his gift of adoration unto fire.^[188] Through the fire and the thought of Ahura Mazda, he says, he will find protection against the Evil Spirit and his evil machinations and it is through them that Asha's righteousness will thrive.^[189]

Physical impurity is removed by fire and Zarathushtra employs this emblem of purification in the eschatological sense to burn and destroy spiritual uncleanliness or sin. Thus will the fire be the great purifier of souls steeped in wickedness Through Asha and fire will Ahura Mazda give his final award unto the good and the evil.^[190] Asha and Armaiti will help Ahura Mazda when he will separate the righteous from the wicked through his fire.^[191] The fire of Ahura Mazda is mighty through Asha and will bring manifest joy unto the righteous but a visible harm unto the wicked.^[192] Ahura Mazda's might and holiness, says Zarathushtra, will be manifest when he will deal out the destinies unto the righteous and the wicked through the glow of fire strengthened by Asha.^[193]

 

Khshathra

The sovereign power of Ahura Mazda. One of the first attributes that man learns to discern in the heavenly beings is their might or power. It is manifest in their activities as creators, sustainers, and rulers. The ancestors of the Indo-Iranians called it kshatra, and applied it to Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and the Adityas. Zarathushtra, we find, adopts it in its Iranian form khshathra and uses it in its ordinary meaning, power, or applies it specifically to divine power, symbolized in the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda. He gives it the epithet vohu and calls it vohu khshathra, 'the Good Kingdom,'^[194] or speaks of it as khshathra ishtoish, 'the Kingdom of Desire,'^[195] or names it Khshathra vairya, 'the Wished for Kingdom.'^[196] Ahura Mazda has created Khshathra.^[197] In the post-Gathic period the compound Khshathra Vairya gains ground and is always used as the name of the archangel representing Ahura Mazda's divine majesty.

Zarathushtra exhorts mankind to work for the establishment of the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda. The creator, ruler, and sovereign lord of both the worlds is Ahura Mazda. The pious invoke him to lead them to work in his kingdom upon earth for the prosperity of men and their cattle.^[198] They pray that they may get happy homes, rich in pastures, attended by Khshathra.^[199] All creatures prosper in Mazda's Kingdom through Vohu Manah,^[200] and through him again Ahura Mazda gives Khshathra's power to the good.^[201] Nobler than the sphere of earthly riches is Khshathra's domain of spiritual riches. Ahura Mazda rules over his earthly kingdom and prepares mankind for his celestial kingdom of perfection and goodness that is yet to be. Despite its much good, this world harbours in its midst much that is evil Man's work in this life is to fight and rout the forces of evil. Zarathushtra has laid the foundation of the Divine Kingdom and has assigned to man the stupendous task of building and establishing the ideal kingdom m which good alone will exist. Evil lurks in man and through man bestrides the world. It is his duty to cleanse his inner nature of all impurity and eradicate evil from the world without. Zarathushtra is hopeful and confident that one day evil will not be. It is left to man to bring that day near or keep it at a distance. It is in his hands to accomplish it now or keep it long in the coming. The prophet of Ahura Mazda is in earnest and eager to hasten its advent. lie asserts, with repeated emphasis, that the Kingdom is near at hand, if only mankind sets about zealously and strenuously to inaugurate it. He passionately exhorts his hearers not to waver, not to be staggered by the formidable nature of the task, but to aspire and work and struggle and fight for it with body and mind, heart and soul. With deep religious fervour he sings that he is ready to lay down the life of his body to lead mankind to work for the advancement of the Kingdom in obedience to the commandments of Ahura Mazda.^[202] With Ahura Mazda on his side, he makes the good thoughts of Vohu Manah and righteousness of Asha his own and, with the burning devotion of Armaiti, he works for the advent of the imperishable Kingdom.^[203] Triumph of righteousness over wickedness will usher in the Kingdom and he prays for strength for himself and his followers so that they may wage a successful war against wickedness.^[204]

The pious pray that they may participate in the inauguration of the Kingdom of Mazda.^[205] Vohu Manah, the guardian of good thoughts, furthers the Kingdom.^[206] As right thinking is the source of good conduct and endeavour to work for the advent of the Divine Kingdom, it is sometimes spoken of as belonging to Vohu Manah. The Kingdom, it is said, is in the possession of Vohu Manah and Ahura Mazda and Asha and Armaiti live in it.^[207] The Kingdom of Vohu Manah is furthered by Asha's righteousness.^[208] To be worthy of entering the Divine Kingdom and living in it is man's highest aspiration. Asha assures the life in the Kingdom to those who work zealously for the furtherance of righteousness.^[209] Through righteousness is the divine help gained in Mazda's Kingdom.^[210] Zarathushtra is eager to enter the blessed Kingdom,^[211] and a long life of felicitous existence in it,^[212] and to share its splendours.^[213] Wise Jamaspa courts the life of righteousness and longs for the Kingdom as the gift of Vohu Manah.^[214] Zarathushtra prays that Frashaoshtra may win the Kingdom of Ahura Mazda for all time.^[215] He asks Ahura Mazda to manifest unto him the incomparable things that mankind will witness in the Divine Kingdom as the reward of Vohu Manah.^[216] Ahura Mazda is asked to give the Kingdom through Vohu Manah as reward to those whom he knows to be doing what is best in life.^[217]

The Divine Kingdom in the world of perfection. Vohu Manah will proclaim the advent of the Kingdom.^[218] Ahura Mazda has ordained through Vohu Manah and Asha to give unto the good perfection and immortality in his Kingdom.^[219] Through Khshathra he apportions the destinies unto the good and the evil according to their deserts.^[220] The pious yearn for the presence of Ahura Mazda with Vohu Manah, Asha, and Khshathra when they enter the paradisaical Abode of Song.^[221] Ahura Mazda will come at the final goal accompanied by his Holy Spirit, Vohu Manah, Asha, Khshathra, and Armaiti.^[222] With evil eradicated and imperfection at an end, the world that will emerge on the occasion of the establishment of the Divine Kingdom will be altogether a new world, a perfect world.^[223]

Khshathra's sphere over metals. Ahura Mazda has created the earth rich in soil and has filled its bowels with untold mineral wealth and has desired that mankind should thrive and prosper through the riches obtained by their diligence and labour. Wealth is the natural concomitant of all earthly kingdoms. All earthly and spiritual riches therefore are embodied in Khshathra. The later Avestan texts assign the guardianship of metals, the visible token of wealth, to Khshathra. The Gathas are silent over the connection of Khshathra with metals. The ordeal of molten metal does however play a prominent part in cleansing the world of all moral impurities to make way for the coming of Khshathra's Kingdom. Ahura Mazda knows best the retributions that will take place through the molten metal.^[224] The righteous will reap their final reward and the wicked will meet with their retribution when Ahura Mazda will judge them through the molten metal.^[225]

 

Armaiti

The feminine abstraction of Ahura Mazda's devotion. Armaiti is cognate with Vedic Aramati, who is a shadowy personification of piety or devotion. She retains the same meaning in the Gathas and is emblematic of Ahura Mazda's love or devotion. Ahura Mazda created her,^[226] and she is lovingly called his daughter,^[227] or again, his own.^[228] Holy or spenta, which is her standing epithet in the later period, is applied to her sometimes in the Gathas.

Zarathushtra's soul is wedded to Ahura Mazda through Armaiti's devotion. Through fervent meditation on his own inner nature and patient study of Ahura Mazda's marvellous work in creation, Zarathushtra understands the ways of Ahura Mazda. He knows the wise lord through the enlightenment of his mind. His heart yearns to own Ahura Mazda. From the depth of his heart, he prays unto him, invokes him in silence and with the pronounced words of his mouth. He bums incense of devotion unto his maker upon the fire burning on the altar in the holy temple of his heart The fire first flares and flickers, then blazes and burns, and illumines the sublime path that leads to Ahura Mazda. He dedicates his will and his desire and his heart and his life and himself unto him. He loses himself in devoted love for him. He sees with Ahura Mazda's eyes and hears with Ahura Mazda's ears. He communes with him and he becomes one with him. He is eager that his hearers should share the incomparable gift of Armaiti with him. With earnest longing he asks Ahura Mazda when Armaiti's devotion will ennoble the lives of those to whom he proclaims his faith.^[229] The members of different ranks of Iranian society that have embraced his religion fervently pray that the good and holy Armaiti may be theirs.^[230] Those who have devoutly accepted the commandments of Ahura Mazda are eager to devote their hearts unto him.^[231]

Armaiti's work. Armaiti teaches the ordinances of Ahura Mazda.^[232] She furthers the imperishable Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.^[233] Those who make Armaiti's devotion their own, become holy.^[234] Armaiti blesses them with plenty and prosperity.^[235] Ahura Mazda is asked to give vigour through her.^[236] Zarathushtra asks the faithful to exalt Ahura Mazda with devotional prayers.^[237] His religion inspires truthful deeds through the words of Armaiti.^[238] In the Vedas we find Aramati linked with rta, that is, devotion in connection with the moral order.^[239] So we are told in the Gathas that Asha's righteousness is furthered by Armaiti.^[240] As righteousness is the outcome of the life of Armaiti's devotion, the wise one bases his conduct upon her inspiration.^[241] The prophet asks Frashaoshtra to lead the faithful to the life of communion with Asha's righteousness and Armaiti's devotion.^[242] For the union of both furthers the Kingdom of Vohu Manah.^[243] The coming of Asha and Armaiti to inspire their lives is eagerly sought by the pious.^[244] Armaiti inquires after the misdeeds and shortcomings of the true speaker and the false speaker, the wise and the ignorant.^[245] The wicked Bendva, the inveterate foe of the prophet, does not follow Armaiti.^[246] Righteousness deserts those who know Armaiti as the beloved of Ahura Mazda, and yet estrange themselves from her devotion.^[247] Zarathushtra asks her to give him and Vishtaspa their hearts' desire.^[248] He implores her to teach men's consciences through righteousness.^[249] She is besought to grant as a gift the riches of the life of Vohu Manah's good thoughts.^[250] One serves the Most Holy Spirit the best by the performance of the deeds inspired by Armaiti's devotion.^[251] Armaiti is invoked to send righteous sovereigns and not wicked ones to rule over the world.^[252] Armaiti will co-operate with Ahura Mazda at the final dispensation.^[253]

Armaiti's relation to the earth. Sayana glosses Aramati by bhūmi, 'earth.' Armaiti plays a prominent part as the genius of earth in the later Avestan period. Though the Gathas do not clearly emphasize this aspect of her work, we can trace in them the belief in Armaiti's connection with the earth. Zarathushtra preaches the usefulness of settled agricultural life as opposed to the nomadic life prevailing in his days. He says that Ahura Mazda has laid out the beneficent path of agriculture and asks men to choose it. Armaiti is here conjointly mentioned with Geush Tashan.^[254] The noble descendants of the Turanian Fryana, prompted by righteousness, further the settlements of Armaiti through their diligence.^[255] The Maker has, in consultation with Vohu Manah, the genius of cattle, created Armaiti or earth and replenished it with pastures.^[256]

 

Haurvatat and Ameretat

The inseparable pair of perfection and immortality. Haurvatat and Ameretat form an indissoluble spiritual pair and are always celebrated together in the Gathas. No single hymn is addressed to Haurvatat or to Ameretat alone. Haurvata means weal or perfection, and Ameretat is emblematic of immortality. The dual earthly gift of endurance and vigour of body is paralleled with the heavenly blessings of perfection and immortality.^[257] Ahura Mazda bestows through Vohu Manah and Asha endurance and vigour of body in this world and Haurvatat's perfection and Ameretat's immortality in the next, upon those who offer him the sacrifice of devotion.^[258] The earthly boons are the gifts of Haurvatat and Ameretat.^[259] Whoso piously pronounces the sacred formulas dedicated to Haurvatat and Ameretat receives the best reward.^[260] Through the recital of these holy words and basing their lives upon righteousness, do the faithful win for themselves the blessings of Haurvatat and Ameretat.^[261] Zarathushtra fervently prays for the participation in these blessings.^[262] Those who offer willing obedience unto the teachings of the prophet will attain unto Haurvatat and Ameretat.^[263] He who befriends Ahura Mazda with his thoughts and words and deeds wins them for himself.^[264] Man comes by them in Ahura Mazda's Kingdom through his good thoughts, words, and deeds, and his life of righteousness and devotion.^[265] It is the wicked who defraud mankind of happy life and immortality by means of evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds.^[266]

Water and plants form the province of Haurvatat and Ameretat. The Gathas hint at the connection of Haurvatat and Ameretat with water and plants, over whom they preside in the Later Avesta. Ahura Mazda who has created water and plants is invoked to give Haurvatat's perfection and Ameretat's immortality.^[267] On the eschatological side Haurvatat figuratively represents ambrosia and Ameretat stands for nectar that the pious souls receive in heaven.^[268]

 

Sraosha

Sraosha is obedience to the religious lore. In the later period, Sraosha rises to great prominence as the divine teacher of Mazda's religion. Zarathushtra longs to see Sraosha,^[269] and prays that he may come unto every man whom Mazda wills.^[270] The prophet teaches the new faith to the world of humanity. He exhorts mankind to pay heed to the words that are best for the mortals to hear and tells them that Ahura Mazda will give them perfection and immortality if they will bring Sraosha's obedience unto him.^[271] By teaching mankind to obey the ordinances of Ahura Mazda, and inspiring them to work according to them, through good thoughts, words, and deeds for the furtherance of righteousness in the world, Zarathushtra helps in the inauguration of the Divine Kingdom of Ahura Mazda.^[272] In the later period Sraosha acts as a co-assessor with Mithra and Rashnu, who all combine to make up a heavenly tribunal for the judgment of the dead. Mithra and Rashnu, the two brother judges, seated with Sraosha, do not appear in the Gathas, but a passage speaks of Sraosha's coming as a judge with the reward unto the good and evil contending parties.^[273] Zarathushtra invokes Sraosha as the greatest of the heavenly beings to appear at the final consummation of the world.^[274]

The word sraosha occurs also in several Gathic passages in its ordinary meaning of obedience, and not as the personified spirit of this abstract virtue.

 

Atar

The fire cult. Atar or fire corresponds to the Vedic Agin. Atar's functions are elaborately delineated in the Later Avesta. We shall therefore leave the discussion of the resemblance between them for subsequent pages. The early Aryan settlers of Iran had brought the cult to their new home as their cherished heritage bequeathed to them by their Indo-Iranian ancestors Tradition speaks of several great sacred Iranian fires consecrated by the pre-Zoroastrian kings. The Pahlavi Bundahishn says that Yima and Kavi Haosrava established the fires Froba and Goshasp; and that Vishtaspa, the royal patron of Zarathushtra, consecrated the fire Burzin Mihr.^[275] The Mohammedan writers of the tenth century speak of some ten such places dedicated to fire before Zoroaster's time.^[276] The prophet of Iran thus found the cult of fire already established in Iran when he entered upon his divine mission on earth. He purified its archaic form and incorporated it into his new system. Of all the elements, he raised fire, or light, to a place of the highest distinction in his faith.

Ahura Mazda is eternal light, his very nature is light. He lives in the everlasting lights of the highest heaven. Light in its various manifestations, whether as the fire of the hearth on earth, or the fiery substance in the bowels of the earth, or as the genial glow of the sun in the azure vault of heaven, or the silvery sheen of the crescent moon in the sky, or the flickering brilliancy of the stars in the firmament, or even in the form of the life-giving energy distributed in the entire creation, is emblematic of Mazda. No wonder, then, if the prophet of Ancient Iran made fire the consecrated symbol of his religion, a symbol which in point of sublimity, grandeur, and purity, or in its being the nearest earthly image of the heavenly lord, is unequalled by any of its kind in the world.

When Vohu Manah approaches Zarathushtra, and enquires of him what is his most ardent desire, the prophet replies that his inmost yearning is to think of righteousness through the devotional gifts of his homage to Atar's fire.^[277] When the chosen of the Lord is thwarted at times in his great mission by the Druj or Lie, he turns to Atar as one of the protectors that will best help him in the furtherance of the mighty cause of righteousness.^[278] The fire of Mazda plays an important part in the work of the last judgment at the final Renovation of the world. Mazda has promised through Asha that he will give award unto the contending parties of good and evil through fire.^[279] The Heavenly Father will deliver his final judgment upon the righteous and the wicked through fire together with the Holy Spirit.^[280] It is through fire that the creator will bestow profit upon the righteous and bring harm unto the wicked.^[281] Mazda will apportion reward and retribution to both the good and the evil through the glow of fire, which is emblematic of righteousness.^[282] The believers therefore pray that fire, which is mighty through righteousness, may be a manifest help unto the faithful, but a veritable harm unto the foe.^[283] The noble truth of the prophetic words of Zarathushtra will, in this manner, be vindicated when, at the final Dispensation, divine judgment shall be meted out to man through the red fire of Mazda.^[284]

 

Ashi

The feminine abstraction of sanctity. Ashi represents sanctity and destiny, or reward In one passage she is given the epithet vanghuhi, 'good,'^[285] which in the Later Avesta is inseparably associated with her name. She represents the life of piety and its concomitant result. Zarathushtra invokes Asha to come with Ashi.^[286] She apportions Mazda*s ordinances, about which the prophet desires to learn.^[287] He invokes her in his crusade against Druj, or the Lie.^[288] Whoso, through the power that Ashi confers upon him, deprives the wicked of his possessions, reaps the rewards that Mazda has promised.^[289]

In an eschatological sense, she forms the reward assured in heaven to those who have led a life of sanctity upon earth It is with the accompaniment of Ashi's recompense that Sraosha approaches the seat of judgment to reward the righteous and wicked souls.^[290] Zarathushtra asks Ahura Mazda to manifest unto him the incomparable things of his Divine Kingdom which are rewards of Vohu Manah,^[291] and seeks to know the reward that will be his in the Good Kingdom.^[292]

Ashi's sphere of activity grows in the later development of her cult and, in addition to representing the reward of the pious in heaven, she stands also for the earthly prize of those who are diligent. She becomes the genius of fortune, and the eager eyes of her numerous votaries are always turned to her for her favour. This new phase of her activity will receive attention in the place assigned to her in our treatment of the Later Avestan period.

 

Geush Tashan and Geush Urvan

The Fashioner of animal life. The Gathas speak of three beings, Geush Tashan, 'the Creator of the Bull or Cow,' Geush Urvan, 'the Soul of the Bull or Cow,' and Gav Azi, 'the Bull or Cow Azi.' Av. gav, and Skt. go, both mean bull or cow. The dual Vedic divinities Dyaus, 'The Heaven,' and Prithivi, 'The Earth,' have the epithets bull and cow applied to them from their physical characteristics.^[293] After the analogy of the Skt. go, 'bull or cow,' which also means earth, some are led to think that the above expressions are used with reference to the earth.^[294] The Pahlavi, Sanskrit, Persian, and early Gujarati versionists, it may be noted, adhere to the original meaning and explain the words with reference to the bull or cow.

Some creation-myths of the world relate that the earthly creatures have sprung from the bodies of the primeval man or of the cosmic cow killed by the gods or, as in the case of the later Zoroastrianism, by the Evil Spirit. In Babylonian mythology it is Marduk who killed Tiamat and the creatures came into existence from his body. According to the Vedic texts the gods sacrificed Purusha and brought the earthly and aerial creatures into being from his body. Ahriman, say the Pahlavi works, killed Gaya Maretan, the Primeval Man and Gavyokdat, the Primeval Bull, and men and animals and plants came into being from the various parts of their slaughtered bodies.

Cattle were the source of all wealth and the ox who drew the plough and enabled man to cultivate his field was held in religious veneration among the pastoral and agricultural Aryans and Semites from early times. Mithra was the most powerful Indo-Iranian divinity when Zarathushtra preached his new religion. The Iranians worshipped Mithra as 'the lord of wide pastures,' which is his standing epithet in the Younger Avesta. According to the ancient myth Mithra killed the Primeval Bull and thereby became the creator and fashioner of the earthly beings. The Mithraic sculptures represent him sitting on the bull's back, seizing it by the nostrils with one hand and plunging his hunting knife deep into its back. Zarathushtra did not include him in the heavenly hierarchy, but adapted the legend of the immolation of the Primeval Bull by Mithra to ethical ends.^[295]

Geush Tashan stands in the Gathas for the creative activity of Ahura Mazda. He is said to be Ahura Mazda's own,^[296] and Mazda is spoken of as his lord.^[297] Geush Urvan is the spirit of the animal kingdom, and the obscure Gav Azi, who is spoken of in the Gathas as the giver of joy and prosperity, represents the animal creation. Tradition explains Gav Azi as 'the three years old cow.' It is evidently gav aevodāta, 'the sole created bull or cow,' of the Later Avesta,^[298] and Gāvyokdāt, 'the Sole Created Bull' of the Pahlavi and subsequent Sanskrit, Persian, and Gujarati versionists.

Zarathushtra declared the only mortal who could assuage the sufferings of the kine. Geush Urvan complains in a bewailing tone before Ahura Mazda that anger, rapine, plunder, and wickedness are harassing its very existence and therefore its soul sighs for a deliverer.^[299] Ahura Mazda holds a celestial conference to redress the grievances of the Soul of the Kine. After patient deliberations, in which Vohu Manah, the genius of cattle, Asha, the guardian of peaceful, settled life, and Geush Tashan take part, Vohu Manah, as the premier councillor, declares that Zarathushtra is the only mortal who has heard the divine commands, and he is the one person suited to be sent to the world as the spiritual and temporal lord who could remove the grievances of Geush Urvan.^[300] The Soul of the Kine is disconsolate and cries in despair that its sufferings are so great that it would be beyond the power of the prophet to assuage them.^[301] Further pleadings soften its despair and Zarathushtra is chosen for the mighty work.

We can see in this account an attempt to convince the waverers, disbelievers, and heretics of the true mission of the prophet. The later texts resort to miracles of various sorts to fulfil the same purpose. Those who have not yet come, in Gathic times, to any definite conclusion as to the choice of their faith, and are still hesitating before embracing the new creed, are shown how preparations were made in heaven for Zarathushtra's mission, and how it is with the divine approval that the new prophet comes to them for their good.

Zarathushtra preaches the advantages of a settled life, and persuades his hearers to emerge from the pastoral life and embrace agricultural habits. He exhorts them to work diligently for the kine's welfare, grow fodder for their nurture, and lead an active and an industrious life. This is a stage of transition, and all could not easily give up the unsettled habits of life in which they were brought up Naturally, therefore, there is much disorder in the land and Zarathushtra enters upon his mission to establish ordered social life.

Agriculture and cattle-tending bring prosperity. Geush Tashan is mentioned along with Armaiti's earth and Ahura Mazda shows the advantageous path of the industrious agriculturist who tills the earth by his diligence and prospers Vohu Manah's cattle, whereas the indolent persons who do not practise husbandry fail to reap the fruits of life.^[302] Ahura Mazda has created cattle that give the good things of life to men.^[303] Moreover, he has created Armaiti's earth for the pasture of Geush Tashan.^[304] Whoso wishes pasture for cattle reaps the reward for his labour.^[305] Ahura Mazda fulfils the desire of the bodily life of those who, inspired by Vohu Manah, work for the welfare of the cattle.^[306] Unto those who lead righteous lives and work the will of Zarathushtra, will be given in the next world happiness such as the possession of cattle gives.^[307]

 

1. Ys. 30. 9; 31. 4.
2. See Tiele, The Religion of the Persian Peoples, tr. Nariman, p. 116.
3. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, p. 98 f., 117, 240; Geiger, Die Amesha Spentas, p. 164–245; Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, p. 17.
4. Ys. 34. 11; 45. 10; 47. 1.
5. Ys. 31. 22; 51. 1.
6. Ys. 44. 4.
7. Ys. 31. 8; 45. 4.
8. Ys. 28. 9; 31. 4, 7; 32. 6, 11; 33. 9; 47. 1; 50. 1, 4; 51. 4.
9. Ys. 45. 5; 48. 8.
10. Ys. 33. 6.
11. Ys. 48. 3.
12. Ys. 28. 1.
13. Ys. 48. 9.
14. Ys. 48. 11.
15. Ys. 34. 10.
16. Ys. 34. 7.
17. Ys. 30. 9.
18. Ys. 28. 10.
19. Ys. 28. 3.
20. Ys. 30. 1.
21. Ys. 48. 8.
22. Ys. 28. 11.
23. Ys. 28. 4.
24. Ys. 28. 6.
25. Ys. 28. 2.
26. Ys. 50. 9, 10.
27. Ys. 53. 3.
28. Ys. 45. 9.
29. Ys. 31. 17.
30. Ys. 28. 5.
31. Ys. 28. 3.
32. Ys. 43. 7, 9, 11, 13, 15.
33. Ys. 44. 8.
34. Ys. 45. 6.
35. Ys. 50. 6.
36. Ys. 43. 1.
37. Ys. 28. 7; 43. 16.
38. Ys. 33. 6.
39. Ys. 34. 12.
40. Ys. 34. 13.
41. Ys. 32. 11.
42. Ys. 32. 9.
43. Ys. 49. 2.
44. Ys. 44. 13.
45. Ys. 32. 4.
46. Ys. 34. 8.
47. Ys. 34. 9.
48. Ys. 28. 9.
49. Ys. 46. 2.
50. Ys. 43. 2.
51. Ys. 32. 9.
52. Ys. 28. 8.
53. Ys. 33. 13.
54. Ys. 28. 10.
55. Ys. 33. 3.
56. Ys. 49. 5.
57. Ys. 49. 3.
58. Ys. 33. 5. 12; 44. 6; 51. 21.
59. Ys. 29. 10.
60. Ys. 31. 4.
61. Ys. 46. 10.
62. Ys. 51. 7.
63. Ys. 45. 10.
64. Ys. 29. 10.
65. Ys. 45. 5.
66. Ys. 31. 21.
67. Ys. 34. 5.
68. Ys. 32. 6.
69. Ys. 31. 5.
70. Ys. 34. 11.
71. Ys. 43. 6.
72. Ys. 34. 14.
73. Ys. 50. 11.
74. Ys. 46. 18.
75. Ys. 47. 2.
76. Ys. 31. 6.
77. Ys. 46. 13.
78. Ys. 46. 12.
79. Ys. 44. 6.
80. Ys. 30. 8.
81. Ys. 46. 3.
82. Ys. 30. 4.
83. Ys. 30. 10; 44. 9.
84. Ys. 53. 4.
85. Ys. 28. 4.
86. Ys. 32. 15.
87. Ys. 43. 4.
88. Ys. 46. 14.
89. Ys. 33. 5.
90. Ys. 29. 7, 8.
91. Ys. 47. 3.
92. Ys. 50. 1.
93. Ys. 48. 6.
94. Ys. 45. 9.
95. Ys. 44. 3; 47. 2.
96. Ys. 31. 7, 8.
97. Ys. 28. 8; 29. 7.
98. Ys. 46. 17.
99. Ys. 44. 9.
100. Ys. 28. 8.
101. Ys. 44. 3.
102. Ys. 44. 5.
103. Ys. 50. 10.
104. Ys. 32. 2.
105. Ys. 33. 6.
106. Ys. 34. 3.
107. Ys. 51. 22.
108. Ys. 34. 3.
109. Ys. 28. 6.
110. Ys. 28. 3.
111. Ys. 28. 5.
112. Ys. 43. 10.
113. Ys. 50. 9.
114. Ys. 33. 7.
115. Ys. 53. 3.
116. Ys. 51. 17.
117. Ys. 46. 12.
118. Ys. 53. 5.
119. Ys. 46. 15.
120. Ys. 48. 11.
121. Ys. 49. 9.
122. Ys. 51. 10.
123. Ys. 28. 7.
124. Ys. 29. 8.
125. Ys. 28. 4.
126. Ys. 32. 6.
127. Ys. 28. 11.
128. Ys. 48. 8.
129. Ys. 31. 22.
130. Ys. 31. 16.
131. Ys. 33. 3.
132. Ys. 45. 8.
133. Ys. 28. 1.
134. Ys. 28. 6.
135. Ys. 28. 10.
136. Ys. 43. 2.
137. Ys. 46. 2.
138. Ys. 48. 7.
139. Ys. 33. 7.
140. Ys. 33. 12.
141. Ys. 46. 10.
142. Ys. 31. 5.
143. Ys. 28. 2.
144. Ys. 44. 8.
145. Ys. 31. 13.
146. Ys. 45. 9.
147. Ys. 44. 15.
148. Ys. 45. 10.
149. Ys. 43. 6.
150. Ys. 44. 1.
151. Ys. 34. 12.
152. Ys. 29. 2, 3, 6.
153. Ys. 46. 9.
154. Ys. 28. 6.
155. Ys. 28. 9.
156. Ys. 43. 12.
157. Ys. 51. 11.
158. Ys. 34. 14.
159. Ys. 45. 4.
160. Ys. 48. 3.
161. Ys. 33. 13.
162. Ys. 34. 10.
163. Ys. 46. 16.
164. Ys. 51. 16.
165. Ys. 51. 1.
166. Ys. 33. 11.
167. Ys. 44. 20.
168. Ys. 46. 4.
169. Ys. 48. 6.
170. Ys. 51. 5.
171. Ys. 44. 18.
172. RV. 8. 31. 13.
173. Ys. 51. 13.
174. Ys. 33. 5, 6.
175. Ys. 46. 6.
176. Ys. 33. 5.
177. Ys. 48. 5.
178. Ys. 49. 3.
179. Ys. 31. 1.
180. Ys. 31. 4.
181. Ys. 34. 9.
182. Ys. 34. 8.
183. Ys. 44. 13.
184. Ys. 44. 14.
185. Ys. 30. 8.
186. Ys. 46. 3.
187. Ys. 48. 1, 2.
188. Ys. 43. 9.
189. Ys. 46. 7.
190. Ys. 31. 3, 19.
191. Ys. 47. 6.
192. Ys. 34. 4.
193. Ys. 43. 4.
194. Ys. 31. 22; 48. 8.
195. Ys. 51. 2.
196. Ys. 43. 13; 51. 1.
197. Ys. 44. 7.
198. Ys. 45. 9.
199. Ys. 48. 11.
200. Ys. 34. 3.
201. Ys. 51. 21.
202. Ys. 33. 14.
203. Ys. 28. 3.
204. Ys. 31. 4.
205. Ys. 51. 2.
206. Ys. 30. 8; 31. 6.
207. Ys. 46. 16.
208. Ys. 34. 11.
209. Ys. 51. 1.
210. Ys. 43. 14.
211. Ys. 48. 8.
212. Ys. 43. 13.
213. Ys. 43. 8.
214. Ys. 43. 13.
215. Ys. 43. 8.
216. Ys. 33. 13.
217. Ys. 46. 10.
218. Ys. 44. 6.
219. Ys. 45. 10.
220. Ys. 45. 7.
221. Ys. 50. 4.
222. Ys. 43. 6.
223. Ys. 34. 15.
224. Ys. 30. 7; 32. 7.
225. Ys. 51. 9.
226. Ys. 44. 7.
227. Ys. 45. 4.
228. Ys. 31. 9.
229. Ys. 44. 11.
230. Ys. 32. 2.
231. Ys. 31. 1.
232. Ys. 43. 6.
233. Ys. 28. 3.
234. Ys. 51. 21.
235. Ys. 49. 5.
236. Ys. 33. 12.
237. Ys. 45. 10.
238. Ys. 44. 10.
239. RV. 5. 43. 6.
240. Ys. 44. 6.
241. Ys. 34. 10.
242. Ys. 46. 16.
243. Ys. 34. 11.
244. Ys. 43. 10; 48. 11.
245. Ys. 31. 12.
246. Ys. 49. 2.
247. Ys. 34. 9.
248. Ys. 28. 7.
249. Ys. 33. 13.
250. Ys. 43. 1.
251. Ys. 47. 2.
252. Ys. 48. 5.
253. Ys. 47. 6.
254. Ys. 31. 9.
255. Ys. 46. 12.
256. Ys. 47. 3.
257. Ys. 33. 8; 34. 11; 45. 10; 51. 7.
258. Ys. 45. 10.
259. Ys. 33. 8.
260. Ys. 31. 6.
261. Ys. 44. 17.
262. Ys. 44. 18.
263. Ys. 45. 5.
264. Ys. 31. 21.
265. Ys. 47. 1.
266. Ys. 32. 5.
267. Ys. 51. 7.
268. Ys. 34. 11.
269. Ys. 28. 5.
270. Ys. 44. 16.
271. Ys. 45. 5.
272. Ys. 33. 14.
273. Ys. 43. 12.
274. Ys. 33. 5.
275. Bd. 17. 5-8.
276. Jackson, Zoroaster, p. 98-100.
277. Ys. 43. 9.
278. Ys. 46. 7.
279. Ys. 31. 3.
280. Ys. 47. 6.
281. Ys. 51. 9.
282. Ys. 43. 4.
283. Ys. 34. 4.
284. Ys. 31. 19.
285. Ys. 51. 10.
286. Ys. 51. 10.
287. Ys. 34. 12.
288. Ys. 31. 4.
289. Ys. 50. 3.
290. Ys. 43. 12.
291. Ys. 33. 13.
292. Ys. 48. 8.
293. RV. 1. 160. 3.
294. Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of the Parsis, p. 148; Kanga, Gujarati tr. of the Gathas; Punegar, Eng. tr. of the Gathas in the Journal of the K. R. Cama Oriental Institute, No. 12.
295. See Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithra, p. 132–137; Tiele, The Religion of the Iranian Peoples, tr Nariman, p 112–114; Moulton, Early Religious Poetry of Persia, p. 43, 88, 91, 92; Jones, Mithraism in ERE. 8. 752; Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, p. 79–82, 146, 147.
296. Ys. 31. 9.
297. Ys. 47. 3.
298. Yt. 7. 0; Sr. 1. 12; 2. 12.
299. Ys. 29. 1.
300. Ys. 29. 2-8.
301. Ys. 29. 9.
302. Ys. 31. 9, 10.
303. Ys. 44. 6.
304. Ys. 47. 3.
305. Ys. 50. 2.
306. Ys. 34. 14.
307. Ys. 46. 19.