History of the Literature of Ancient Greece (Müller) 2ed

by Karl Otfried Müller

Layout 2

 

LIBRARY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

 

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HISTORY

OF THE

LITERATURE OF ANCIENT GREECE,

TO THE

PERIOD OF ISOCRATES.

 

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN MS. OF

K. O. MÜLLER,
PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN,

By GEORGE CORNWALL LEWIS, Esq.

NEW EDITION, CORRECTED.

 

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PUBLISHED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF
THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

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LONDON:—ROBERT BALDWIN,
47, PATERNOSTER ROW.

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1847.

 

 

LONDON:
GEORGE WOODFALL AND SON,
ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.

 

 

THE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

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The following History of Greek Literature has been composed by Professor K. O. Müller of Gottingen, at the suggestion of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and for its exclusive use. The work has been written in German, and has been translated under the superintendence of the Society, but the German text has never been published, so that the present translation appears as an original work.

Before the publication of the present work, no history of Greek Literature had been published in the English language. The Society thought that, since the Greek Literature is the source from which the literature of the civilized world almost exclusively derives its origin; and since it still contains the finest productions of the human mind in poetry, history, oratory, and philosophy; a history of Greek Literature would be properly introduced into the series of works published under their superintendence. The present work is intended to be within the compass of the general reader; but at the same time to be useful to scholars, and particularly to persons commencing or pursuing the study of the Greek authors. Agreeably with this view, the chief original authorities for the statements in the text are mentioned in the notes: but few references have been given to the works of modern critics, either foreign or native.

The translation has been executed in correspondence with the author, who has read and approved of the larger part of it.

 

 

CONTENTS.

 

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PAGE
Introduction—Subject and Purposes of the Work			1
FIRST PERIOD OF GREEK LITERATURE.
CHAPTER I.
THE RACES AND LANGUAGE OF THE GREEKS.
§	1.	General account of the languages of the Indo-Teutonic family	3
§	2.	Origin and formation of the Indo-Teutonic languages—multiplicity of their grammatical forms	4
§	3.	Characteristics of the Greek language, as compared with the other languages of the Indo-Teutonic family	6
§	4.	Variety of forms, inflexions, and dialects in the Greek language	7
§	5.	The tribes of Greece, and their several dialects—characteristics of each dialect	8
CHAPTER II.
THE RELIGION OF THE GREEKS.
§	1.	The earliest form of the Greek religion not portrayed in the Homeric poems	11
§	2.	The Olympic deities, as described by Homer	12
§	3.	Earlier form of worship in Greece directed to the outward objects of Nature	ib.
§	4.	Character and attributes of the several Greek deities, as personifications of the powers and objects of Nature	13
§	5.	Subsequent modification of these ideas, as displayed in the Homeric description of the same deities	15
CHAPTER III.
EARLIEST POPULAR SONGS.
§	1.	First efforts of Greek poetry. Plaintive songs of husbandmen	16
§	2.	Description of several of these songs, viz. the Linus	17
§	3.	The Ialemus, the Scephrus, the Lityerses, the Bormus, the Maneros, and the laments for Hylas and Adonis	18
§	4.	The Pæan, its origin and character	19
§	5.	The Threnos, or lament for the dead, and the Hymenæos, or bridal song	20
§	6.	Origin and character of the chorus	22
§	7.	Ancient poets who composed sacred hymns, divided into three classes, viz. those connected, i. With the worship of Apollo; ii. With the worship of Demeter and Dionysus; and iii. With the Phrygian worship of the mother of the Gods, of the Corybantes, &c.	24
§	8.	Explanation of the Thracian origin of several of the early Greek poets	25
§	9.	Influence of the early Thracian or Pierian poets on the epic poetry of Homer	28
CHAPTER IV.
ORIGIN OF THE EPIC POETRY.
§	1.	Social position of the minstrels or poets in the heroic age	29
§	2.	Epic poems sung at the feasts of princes and nobles, and at public festivals	30
§	3.	Manner of reciting epic poems, explanation of rhapsodists and rhapsodising	32
§	4.	Metrical form, and poetical character of the epic poetry	35
§	5.	Perpetuation of the early epic poems by memory and not by writing	37
§	6.	Subjects and extent of the ante-Homeric epic poetry	39
CHAPTER V.
HOMER.
§	1.	Opinions on the birth-place and country of Homer	41
§	2.	Homer probably a Smyrnæan: early history of Smyrna	42
§	3.	Union of Æolian and Ionian characteristics in Homer	44
§	4.	Novelty of Homer's choice of subjects for his two poems	47
§	5.	Subject of the Iliad: the anger of Achilles	48
§	6.	Enlargement of the subject by introducing the events of the entire war	50
§	7.	And by dwelling on the exploits of the Grecian heroes	52
§	8.	Change of tone in the Iliad in its progress	53
§	9.	The Catalogue of Ships	54
§	10.	The later books, and the conclusion of the Iliad	56
§	11.	Subject of the Odyssey: the return of Ulysses	57
§	12.	Interpolations in the Odyssey	60
§	13.	The Odyssey posterior to the Iliad; but both poems composed by the same person	ib.
§	14.	Preservation of the Homeric poems by rhapsodists, and manner of their recitation	62
CHAPTER VI.
THE CYCLIC POETS.
§	1.	General character of the Cyclic poems	64
§	2.	The Destruction of Troy and Æthiopis of Arctinus of Miletus	65
§	3.	The little Iliad of Lesches	66
§	4.	The Cypria of Stasinus	68
§	5.	The Nostoi of Agias of Troezen	69
§	6.	The Telegonia of Eugammon of Cyrene	70
§	7.	Poems on the War against Thebes	ib.
CHAPTER VII.
THE HOMERIC HYMNS.
§	1.	General character of the Homeric Hymns, or Proœmia	72
§	2.	Occasions on which they were sung: Poets by whom, and times at which, they were composed	73
§	3.	Hymn to the Delian Apollo	74
§	4.	Hymn to the Pythian Apollo	75
§	5.	Hymn to Hermes	ib.
§	6.	Hymn to Aphrodite	76
§	7.	Hymn to Demeter	ib.
CHAPTER VIII.
HESIOD.
§	1.	Circumstances of Hesiod's Life, and general character of his Poetry	77
§	2.	The Works and Days, the Poem on Divination, and the Lessons of Chiron	82
§	3.	The Theogony	87
§	4.	The Great Eoiæ, the Catalogues of Women, the Melampodia, the Ægimius	95
§	5.	The Marriage of Ceyx, the Epithalamium of Peleus and Thetis, the Descent of Theseus and Pirithous into Hell, the Shield of Hercules	98
CHAPTER IX.
OTHER EPIC POETS.
§	1.	General character of other Epic Poets	100
§	2.	Cinæthon of Lacedæmon, Eumelus of Corinth, Asius of Samos, Chersias of Orchumenus	ib.
§	3.	Epic Poems on Hercules; the Taking of Œchalia; the Heraclea of Peisander of Rhodes	102
CHAPTER X.
THE ELEGY AND THE EPIGRAM.
§	1.	Exclusive prevalence of Epic Poetry, in connexion with the monarchical period; influence of the change in the forms of Government upon Poetry	104
§	2.	Elegeion, its meaning; origin of Elegos; plaintive songs of Asia Minor, accompanied by the flute; mode of Recitation of the Elegy	105
§	3.	Metre of the Elegy	106
§	4.	Political and military tendency of the Elegy as composed by Callinus; the circumstances of his time	ib.
§	5.	Tyrtæus, his Life; occasion and subject of his Elegy of Eunomia	110
§	6.	Character and mode of recitation of the Elegies of Tyrtæus	112
§	7.	Elegies of Archilochus, their reference to Banquets; mixture of convivial jollity (Asius)	ib.
§	8.	Plaintive Elegies of Archilochus	114
§	9.	Mimnermus; his Elegies; the expression of the impaired strength of the Ionic nation	ib.
§	10.	Luxury, a consolation in this state; the Nanno of Mimnermus	116
§	11.	Solon's character; his Elegy of Salamis	117
§	12.	Elegies before and after Solon's Legislation; the expression of his political feeling; mixture of Gnomic Passages (Phocylides)	118
§	13.	Elegies of Theognis; their original character	120
§	14.	Their origin in the political Revolutions of Megara	ib.
§	15.	Their personal reference to the Friends of Theognis	122
§	16.	Elegies of Xenophanes; their philosophical tendency	124
§	17.	Elegies of Simonides on the Victories of the Persian War; tender and pathetic spirit of his Poetry; general view of the course of Elegiac Poetry	125
§	18.	Epigrams in elegiac form; their Object and Character; Simonides, as a Composer of Epigrams	126
CHAPTER XI.
IAMBIC POETRY.
§	1.	Striking contrast of the Iambic and other contemporaneous Poetry	128
§	2.	Poetry in reference to the bad and the vulgar	129
§	3.	Different treatment of it in Homer and Hesiod	130
§	4.	Homeric Comic Poems, Margites, &c.	131
§	5.	Scurrilous songs at meals, at the worship of Demeter; the Festival of Demeter of Paros, the cradle of the Iambic poetry of Archilochus	132
§	6.	Date and Public Life of Archilochus	133
§	7.	His Private Life; subject of his Iambics	134
§	8.	Metrical form of his iambic and trochaic verses, and different application of the two asynartetes; epodes	135
§	9.	Inventions and innovations in the musical recitation	138
§	10.	Innovations in Language	139
§	11.	Simonides of Amorgus; his Satirical Poem against Women	140
§	12.	Solon's iambics and trochaics	ib.
§	13.	Iambic Poems of Hipponax; invention of choliambics; Ananias	141
§	14.	The Fable; its application among the Greeks, especially in Iambic poetry	143
§	15.	Kinds of the Fable, named after different races and cities	144
§	16.	Æsop, his Life, and the Character of his Fables	145
§	17.	Parody, burlesques in an epic form, by Hipponax	146
§	18.	Batrachomyomachia	147
CHAPTER XII.
PROGRESS OF THE GREEK MUSIC.
§	1.	Transition from the Epos, through the Elegy and Iambus, to Lyric Poetry; connexion of Lyric Poetry with Music	148
§	2.	Founders of Greek Music; Terpander, his descent and date	149
§	3.	Terpander's invention of the seven-stringed Cithara	151
§	4.	Musical scales and styles	152
§	5.	Nomes of Terpander for singing to the Cithara; their rhythmical form	154
§	6.	Olympus, descended from an ancient Phrygian family of flute-players	156
§	7.	His influence upon the development of the music of the flute and rhythm among the Greeks	ib.
§	8.	His influence confined to music	158
§	9.	Thaletas, his age	159
§	10.	His connexion with ancient Cretan worships. Pæns and hyporchemes of Thaletas	160
§	11.	Musicians of the succeeding period—Clonas, Hierax, Xenodamus, Xenocritus, Polymnestus, Sacadas	161
§	12.	State of Greek Music at this period	163
CHAPTER XIII.
THE ÆOLIC SCHOOL OF LYRIC POETRY.
§	1.	Difference between the Lyric Poetry of the Æolians, and the Choral Lyric Poetry of the Dorians	164
§	2.	Life and Political Acts of Alcæus	166
§	3.	Their connexion with his Poetry	167
§	4.	The other subjects of his Poems	168
§	5.	Their metrical form	170
§	6.	Life and moral character of Sappho	172
§	7.	Her Erotic Poetry to Phaon	174
§	8.	Poems of Sappho to women	176
§	9.	Hymenæals of Sappho	178
§	10.	Followers of Sappho, Damophila, Erinna	179
§	11.	Life of Anacreon	180
§	12.	His Poems to the youths at the Court of Polycrates	182
§	13.	His Love-songs to Hetæræ	183
§	14.	Character of his versification	185
§	15.	Comparison of the later Anacreontics	186
§	16.	Scolia; occasions on which they were sung, and their subjects	187
§	17.	Scolia of Hybrias and Callistratus	189
CHAPTER XIV.
CHORAL LYRIC POETRY.
§	1.	Connexion of lyric poetry with choral songs gradual rise of regular forms from this connexion	190
First stage.—§ 2. Alcman; his origin and date; mode of recitation and form of his choral songs			193
§	3.	Their poetical character	196
§	4.	Stesichorus; hereditary transmission of his poetical taste; his reformation of the chorus	197
§	5.	Subjects and character of his poetry	199
§	6.	Erotic and bucolic poetry of Stesichorus	202
§	7.	Arion. The dithyramb raised to a regular choral song	203
Second stage.—§ 8. Life of Ibycus; his imitation of Stesichorus			205
§	9.	Erotic tendency of his poetry	206
§	10.	Life of Simonides	207
§	11.	Variety and ingenuity of his poetical powers. Comparison of his Epinikia with those of Pindar	209
§	12.	Characteristics of his style	212
§	13.	Lyric poetry of Bacchylides, imitated from that of Simonides	213
§	14.	Parties among the lyric poets; rivalry of Lasus, Timocreon, and Pindar with Simonides	214
CHAPTER XV.
PINDAR.
§	1.	Pindar's descent; his early training in poetry and music	216
§	2.	Exercise of his art; his independent position with respect to the Greek princes and republics	218
§	3.	Kinds of poetry cultivated by him	220
§	4.	His Epinikia; their origin and objects	222
§	5.	Their two main elements; general remarks, and mythical narrations	224
§	6.	Connexion of these two elements; peculiarities of the structure of Pindar's odes	226
§	7.	Variety of tone in his odes, according to the different musical styles	227
CHAPTER XVI.
THEOLOGICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL POETRY.
§	1.	Moral improvement of Greek poetry after Homer especially evident in the notions as to the state of man after death	229
§	2.	Influence of the mysteries and of the Orphic doctrines on these notions	230
§	3.	First traces of Orphic ideas in Hesiod and other epic poets	232
§	4.	Sacerdotal enthusiasts in the age of the Seven Sages; Epimenides, Abaris, Aristeas, and Pherecydes	233
§	5.	An Orphic literature arises after the destruction of the Pythagorean league	235
§	6.	Subjects of the Orphic poetry; at first cosmogonic	235
§	7.	afterwards prophetic, in reference to Dionysus	237
CHAPTER XVII.
THE EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHERS.
§	1.	Opposition of philosophy and poetry among the Greeks; causes of the introduction of prose writings	238
§	2.	The Ionians give the main impulse; tendency of philosophical speculation among the Ionians	240
§	3.	Retrospect of the theological speculations of Pherecydes	ib.
§	4.	Thales; he combines practical talents with bold ideas concerning the nature of things	241
§	5.	Anaximander, a writer and inquirer on the nature of things	242
§	6.	Anaximenes pursues the physical inquiries of his predecessors	243
§	7.	Heraclitus; profound character of his natural philosophy	244
§	8.	Changes introduced by Anaxagoras; new direction of the physical speculations of the Ionians	246
§	9.	Diogenes continues the early doctrine. Archelaus, an Anaxagorean, carries the Ionic philosophy to Athens	248
§	10.	Doctrines of the Eleatics, founded by Xenophanes; their enthusiastic character is expressed in a poetic form	249
§	11.	Parmenides gives a logical form to the doctrines of Xenophanes; plan of his poem	251
§	12.	Further development of the Eleatic doctrine by Melissus and Zeno	252
§	13.	Empedocles, akin to Anaxagoras and the Eleatics, but conceives lofty ideas of his own	253
§	14.	Italic school; receives its impulse from an Ionian, which is modified by the Doric character of the inhabitants. Coincidence of its practical tendency with its philosophical principle	255
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE EARLY GREEK HISTORIANS.
§	1.	High antiquity of history in Asia; causes of its comparative lateness among the Greeks	258
§	2.	Origin of history among the Greeks. The Ionians, particularly the Milesians, took the lead	260
§	3.	Mythological historians; Cadmus, Acusilaus	261
§	4.	Extensive geographical knowledge of Hecatæus; his freer treatment of native traditions	ib.
§	5.	Pherecydes; his genealogical arrangement of traditions and history	263
§	6.	Charon; his chronicles of general and special history	ib.
§	7.	Hellanicus; a learned inquirer into mythical and true history. Beginning of chronological researches	264
§	8.	Xanthus, an acute observer. Dionysius of Miletus, the historian of the Persian wars	ib.
§	9.	General remarks on the composition and style of the logographers	265
CHAPTER XIX.
HERODOTUS.
§	1.	Events of the life of Herodotus	266
§	2.	His travels	267
§	3.	Gradual formation of his work	268
§	4.	Its plan	269
§	5.	Its leading ideas	271
§	6.	Defects and excellencies of his historical researches	272
§	7.	Style of his narrative; character of his language	273

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SECOND PERIOD OF GREEK LITERATURE.

CHAPTER XX.
LITERARY PREDOMINANCE OF ATHENS.
§	1.	Early formation of a national literature in Greece	275
§	2.	Athens subsequently takes the lead in literature and art. Her fitness for this purpose	ib.
§	3.	Concurrence of the political circumstances of Athens to the same end. Solon. The Pisistratids	277
§	4.	Great increase in the power of Athens after the Persian war	279
§	5.	Administration and policy of Pericles, particularly with respect to art and literature	280
§	6.	Seeds of degeneracy in the Athenian Commonwealth at its most flourishing period	282
§	7.	Causes and modes of the degeneracy	283
§	8.	Literature and art were not affected by the causes of moral degeneracy	285
CHAPTER XXI.
ORIGIN OF THE GREEK DRAMA.
§	1.	Causes of dramatic poetry in Greece	285
§	2.	The invention of dramatic poetry peculiar to Greece	287
§	3.	Origin of the Greek drama from the worship of Bacchus	ib.
§	4.	Earliest, or Doric form of tragedy, a choral or dithyrambic song in the worship of Bacchus	289
§	5.	Connexion of the early tragedy with a chorus of satyrs	290
§	6.	Improvement of tragedy at Athens by Thespis	292
§	7.	By Phrynichus	293
§	8.	And by Chœrilus. Cultivation of the satyric drama by the latter	294
§	9.	The satyric drama completely separated from tragedy by Pratinas	295
CHAPTER XXII.
FORM AND CHARACTER OF THE GREEK TRAGEDY.
§	1.	Ideal character of the Greek tragedy; splendid costume of the actors	296
§	2.	Cothurnus; masks	297
§	3.	Structure of the theatre	298
§	4.	Arrangement of the orchestra in connexion with the form and position of the chorus	299
§	5.	Form of the stage, and its meaning in tragedy	300
§	6.	Meaning of the entrances of the stage	302
§	7.	The actors; limitation of their number	303
§	8.	Meaning of the protagonist, deuteragonist, tritagonist	305
§	9.	The changes of the scene inconsiderable; ancient tragedy not being a picture of outward acts	307
§	10.	Eccyclema	309
§	11.	Composition of the drama from various parts; songs of the entire chorus	310
§	12.	Division of a tragedy by the choral songs	312
§	13.	Songs of single persons, of the chorus, and of the actors	ib.
§	14.	Parts of the drama intermediate between song and speech	315
§	15.	Speech of the actors; arrangement of the dialogue and its metrical form	316
CHAPTER XXIII.
ÆSCHYLUS.
§	1.	Life of Æschylus	317
§	2.	Number of his tragedies, and their distribution into trilogies	319
§	3.	Outline of his tragedies; the Persians	320
§	4.	The Phineus and the Glaucus Pontius	321
§	5.	The Ætnæan women	322
§	6.	The Seven against Thebes	323
§	7.	The Eleusiniaus	324
§	8.	The Suppliants; the Egyptians	325
§	9.	The Prometheus bound	327
§	10.	The Prometheus unbound	329
§	11.	The Agamemnon	331
§	12.	The Choephorœ	332
§	13.	The Eumenides, and the Proteus	333
§	14.	General characteristics of the poetry of Æschylus	335
§	15.	His latter years and death	336
CHAPTER XXIV.
SOPHOCLES.
§	1.	Condition in which tragic poetry came into the hands of Sophocles. His first appearance	338
§	2.	Subsequent events of his life; his devotion to the drama	338
§	3.	Epochs in the poetry of Sophocles	340
§	4.	Thorough change in the form of tragedy	341
§	5.	Outline of his plays; the Antigone	342
§	6.	The Electra	344
§	7.	The Trachinian Women	346
§	8.	King Œdipus	ib.
§	9.	The Ajax	348
§	10.	The Philoctetes	350
§	11,	12. The Œdipus at Colonus, in connexion with the character and conduct of Sophocles in his latter years	351
§	13.	The style of Sophocles	355
CHAPTER XXV.
EURIPIDES.
§	1.	Difference between Sophocles and Euripides. The latter essentially speculative. Tragedy, a subject ill-suited for his genius	357
§	2.	Intrusion of tragedy into the interests of the private	359
§	3.	And public life of the time	360
§	4.	Alterations in the plan of tragedy introduced by Euripides. Prologue	362
§	5.	And Deus ex machina	363
§	6.	Comparative insignificance of the chorus. Prevalence of monodies	364
§	7.	Style of Euripides	366
§	8.	Outline of his plays: the Alcestis	ib.
§	9.	The Medea	367
§	10.	The Hippolytus	368
§	11.	The Hecuba	369
§	12.	Epochs in the mode of treating his subject: the Heracleidæ	370
§	13.	The Suppliants	371
§	14.	The Ion	ib.
§	15.	The raging Heracles	372
§	16.	The Andromache	373
§	17.	The Trojan Women	ib.
§	18.	The Electra	374
§	19.	The Helena	375
§	20.	The Iphigenia at Tauri	376
§	21.	The Orestes	377
§	22.	The Phœnician Women	ib.
§	23.	The Bacchanalians	378
§	24.	The Iphigenia at Aulis	379
§	25.	Lost pieces: the Cyclops	380
CHAPTER XXVI.
THE OTHER TRAGIC POETS.
§	1.	Inferiority of the other tragic poets	381
§	2.	Contemporaries of Sophocles and Euripides: Neophron, Ion, Aristarchus, Achæus, Carcinus, Xenocles	382
§	3.	Tragedians somewhat more recent: Agathon; the anonymous son of Cleomachus. Tragedy grows effeminate	383
§	4.	Men of education employ tragedy as a vehicle of their opinions on the social relations of the age	384
§	5.	The families of the great tragedians: the Æschyleans, Sophocleans, and the younger Euripides	385
§	6.	Influence of other branches of literature; tragedy is treated by Chæremon in the spirit of lax and effeminate lyric poetry	386
§	7.	Tragedy is subordinated to rhetoric in the dramas of Theodectes	387
CHAPTER XXVII.
§	1.	The comic element in Greek poetry due to the worship of Bacchus	391
§	2.	Also connected with the Comus at the lesser Dionysia: Phallic Songs	393
§	3.	Beginnings of dramatic comedy at Megara, Susarion, Chionides, &c.	395
§	4.	The perfectors of the old Attic comedy	397
§	5.	The structure of comedy. What it has in common with tragedy	398
§	6.	Peculiar arrangement of the chorus; Parabasis	400
§	7.	Dances, metres, and style	402
CHAPTER XXVIII.
§	1.	Events of the life of Aristophanes; the mode of his first appearance	405
§	2.	His dramas; the Dætaleis; the Babylonians	406
§	3.	The Acharnians analyzed	408
§	4.	The Knights	412
§	5.	The Clouds	415
§	6.	The Wasps	419
§	7.	The Peace	420
§	8.	The Birds	420
§	9.	The Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusæ	423
§	10.	The Frogs	425
§	11.	The Ecclesiazusæ; the second Plutus. Transition to the middle comedy	426
CHAPTER XXIX.
§	1.	Characteristics of Cratinus	428
§	2.	Eupolis	430
§	3.	Peculiar tendencies of Crates; his connexion with Sicilian comedy	431
§	4.	Sicilian comedy originates in the Doric farces of Megara	432
§	5.	Events in the life of Epicharmus; general tendency and nature of his comedy	433
§	6.	The middle Attic comedy: poets of this class akin to those of the Sicilian comedy in many of their pieces	436
§	7.	Poets of the new comedy the immediate successors of those of the middle comedy. How the new comedy becomes naturalized at Rome	438
§	8.	Public morality at Athens at the time of the new comedy	440
§	9.	Character of the new comedy in connexion therewith	443
CHAPTER XXX.
§	1.	The Dithyramb becomes the chief form of Athenian lyric poetry. Lasus of Hermione	446
§	2.	New style of the Dithyramb introduced by Melanippides, Philoxenus, Cinesias, Phrynis, Timotheus, Polyeidus	447
§	3.	Mode of producing the new Dithyramb: its contents and character	450
§	4.	Reflective lyric poetry	452
§	5.	Social and political elegies. The Lyde of Antimachus essentially different from these	452
§	6.	Epic poetry, Panyasis, Chœrilus, Antimachus	454
CHAPTER XXXI.
§	1.	Importance of prose at this period	456
§	2.	Oratory at Athens rendered necessary by the democratical form of government	456
§	3.	Themistocles; Pericles: power of their oratory	458
§	4.	Characteristics of their oratory in relation to their opinions and modes of thought	459
§	5.	Form and style of their speeches	460
CHAPTER XXXII.
§	1.	Profession of the Sophists; essential elements of their doctrines. The principle of Protagoras	462
§	2.	Opinions of Gorgias. Pernicious effects of his doctrines, especially as they were carried out by his disciples	463
§	3.	Important services of the Sophists in forming a prose style: different tendencies of the Sicilian and other Sophists in this respect	465
§	4.	The rhetoric of Gorgias	466
§	5.	His forms of expression	467
CHAPTER XXXIII.
§	1.	Antiphon's career and employments	469
§	2.	His school exercises, the Tetralogies	471
§	3.	His speeches before the courts; character of his oratory	472
§	4,	5. More particular examination of his style	474
§	6.	Andocides; his life and character	477
CHAPTER XXXIV.
§	1.	The life of Thucydides: his training that of the age of Pericles	479
§	2.	His new method of teaching history	481
§	3.	The consequent distribution and arrangement of his materials, as well in his whole work as	482
§	4.	In the Introduction	483
§	5.	His mode of treating these materials ; his research and criticism	485
§	6.	Accuracy and,	486
§	7.	Intellectual character of his history	487
§	8,	9. The speeches considered as the soul of his history	488
§	10,	11. His mode of expression and the structure of his sentences	491
CHAPTER XXXV.
§	1.	Events which followed the Peloponnesian War. The adventures of Lysias. Leading epochs of his life	495
§	2.	The earliest sophistical rhetoric of Lysias	497
§	3.	The style of this rhetoric preserved in his later panegyrical speeches	499
§	4.	Change in the oratory of Lysias produced by his own impulses and by his employment as a writer of speeches for private individuals	500
§	5.	Analysis of his speech against Agoratas	501
§	6.	General view of his extant orations	503
CHAPTER XXXVI.
§	1.	Early training of Isocrates; but slightly influenced by Socrates	504
§	2.	School of Isocrates; its great repute; his attempts to influence the politics of the day without thoroughly understanding them	505
§	3.	The form of a speech the principal matter in his judgment	507
§	4.	New development which he gave to prose composition	508
§	5.	His structure of periods	509
§	6.	Smoothness and evenness of his style	511
§	7.	He prefers the panegyrical oratory to the forensic	512