Icelandic Poetry/Introduction

INTRODUCTION.

The Northern nations maintained a doubtful contest with Rome, even in the most glorious period of the Republic—but when Rome had sunk into depraved slavery, the enthusiasm of a fierce superstition prevailed, and the face of Europe has been changed by its success. The tenets of this superstition must be sought for in the Edda.

The original inhabitants of Europe according to some writers, consisted of two distinct races of men, the Celts and Sarmatians^[1]. The latter they say were the Ancestors of the Russians, Poles, Bohemians and Walachians. From the former descended the ancient inhabitants of Gaul, Germany, Scandinavia, Britain and Spain. But by others this position is denied, so far however as relates to the Celts. These maintain that Germany, Scandinavia, Gaul and Britain, were not inhabited by the descendants of one single race; but divided between the Celtic who were the ancestors of the Gauls, Britons, and Irish; and the Gothic or Teutonic, from whom the Germans, Belgians, Saxons and Scandinavians derive their origin.

Two reasons may be assigned for this difference of opinion. One from the similarity of language, the other, of custom. In remote ages prior to history, and the improvements of science, the bounds and limits of each nation were but faintly distinguished. The barbarous inhabitants of Europe, roving and unsettled, often varied their situation. At one time they seized this part of the country, at another, were driven from it by some stronger tribe of Barbarians, or spontaneously left it in search of some new settlement. Thus Cæsar informs us that the Gauls often migrated across the Rhine into Germany, and on the other hand, the Germans into Gaul. By these means the languages and customs of each became blended together, till in time, historians were led to believe that they were both originally descended from the same stock. The Roman writers had such a confused and indistinct knowledge of the descent and character of the northern nations of Europe, that they confounded both the Celts and Goths with the Sarmatians, who are well known to have been a distinct nation from them both. Thus Zosimus, an historian of the third century, includes them all under the common name of Scythians; and this at a time when, after their long and frequent intercourse with the Romans, their historians ought to have been taught to distinguish them better.

But notwithstanding the general resemblances between the Germans and Gauls, or in other words, the Teutonic and Celtic nations, they are sufficiently distinguished from each other, and differ considerably in their person, manners, laws, religion, and language.

Cæsar expressly assures us, that the Celts or inhabitants of Gaul, differed in language, custom, and laws, from the Belgæ, on the one hand, who were chiefly a Teutonic people, and from the inhabitants of Aquitain on the other, who from their vicinity to Spain, were probably of Iberian extraction; and Cæsar ought certainly to be considered as complete master of the subject. Tacitus also has observed a striking difference in the persons of the Germans, Gauls, and Spaniards.

They differed also in customs and manners. To instance only in one point, among the Germans, the wife did not give a dowry to her husband, but the husband to the wife. Among the Gauls, the husband received a portion in money with his wife, for which he made her a suitable settlement of his goods.

They differed no less in their institutions and laws. The Celtic nations do not appear to have had that equal plan of liberty, which was the peculiar characteristic of all the Gothic tribes, and which they carried with them, and planted wherever they made settlements. On the contrary, in Gaul, all the freedom and power chiefly centered among the Druids and the chief men, whom Cæsar calls Equites or Knights: but the inferior people were little better than in a state of slavery; whereas the meanest German was independent and free.

But if none of these proofs of their being two distinct people existed, the difference between their religion and language would decide the controversy at once.

Among the Celts, there was a peculiar Hierarchy or sacred College, which had the entire conduct of all their religious and even civil affairs. The members of this institution, who were Druids, served them both for Magistrates and Priests: but among the Gothic and Teutonic nations, nothing of this kind is to be found. It is true the Gothic nations had their priests, but they bore no more resemblance to the Druids, than to the Pontiffs of the Greeks and Romans, or any other Pagan people.

The Druids believed in the transmigration of the foul. The Teutonic nations, on the contrary, held that there was a fixed Elysium, and a hell, where the valiant and just were rewarded, and where the cowardly and the wicked suffered punishment. The description of these places forms a great part of the Edda.

In many other instances, the institutions of the Druids were extremely different from those of the Gothic nations. The former frequently burnt a great quantity of human victims alive, in large wicker images, as an offering to their Gods. The Gothic nations, though like all other Pagans, they occasionally defiled their altars with human blood, appear never to have had any custom like this.

The Druids venerated the oak and the mistletoe, the latter of which was regarded by them, as the most divine and salutary of plants, and gathered with very peculiar ceremonies. In the Gothic mythology, if any tree seems to have been regarded with more particular attention than others, it is the ash, as appears by its descripton in the Song of Grimner, and the frequent allusions that are made to it in other parts of the Edda. But as for mistletoe, it is represented rather as a contemptible and mischievous shrub.

But what particularly distinguishes the Celtic institutions from those of the Gothic nations, is that remarkable air of secrecy with which the Druids concealed their doctrines from the vulgar; forbidding that they should be ever committed to writing, and upon that account not having so much as an alphabet of their own. In this, the institutions of Odin and the Gothic Scalds or Poets were quite the reverse. No barbarous people were ever so addicted to writing, as appears from the innumerable quantity of Runic inscriptions scattered all over the North; no barbarous people ever held letters in higher reverence, ascribing the invention of them to their chief Deity, and attributing to the letters themselves supernatural virtues.

From a very few rude and simple tenets originally, those wild fablers called scalds or poets had, in the course of eight or nine centuries, invented and raised an amazing structure of fiction. We must not, therefore, suppose that all the fables of the Edda were equally known to the Gothic nations of every age or tribe. As truth is uniform and simple, so error is most irregular and various; and it is very possible, that different fables and different observances might prevail among the same people in different times and countries. This, possibly, may account for the dissimilar relations concerning the same facts, which are found in the Edda of Sæmund and that of Snorro.

From the imperfect knowledge of the divine attributes, all pagan nations are extremely apt to intermix something local with the idea of the divinity, to suppose peculiar Deities presiding over certain districts, and to worship this or that God with particular rites, which were only to be observed in one certain spot. Hence, to inattentive foreigners, there might appear a difference of religion among nations who all maintained, at the bottom, one common creed; and this will account for whatever disagreement is remarked between the ancient writers, in their descriptions of the Gods of the ancient Germans: it will also account for whatever difference may appear between the imperfect relations of the Roman historians, and the full display of the Gothic mythology, held forth in the Edda of Sæmund. It is indeed very probable, that only the first rudiments of the Gothic religion had begun to be formed, when the Germans were first known to the Romans: and when the Saxons made their irruptions into Britain, though they had the same general belief concerning Odin, Thor, Frigga, &c, yet probably the complete system had not arrived to the full maturity it afterwards attained under the inventive hands of the Scalds.

As a particular account of Odin has been omitted in the notes of this volume, it will be supplied here.

Odin is believed to have been the name of the one true God, among the first colonies who came from the East, and peopled Germany and Scandinavia, and among their posterity for several ages. But at length a mighty conqueror, the leader of a new army of adventurers from the Eaft, over-ran the North of Europe, erected a great Empire, assumed the name of Odin, and claimed the honors which had been formerly paid to that Deity. The Icelandic chronicles represent him as the most eloquent and persuasive of men; they ascribe to him the introduction of the art of poetry among the Scandinavians, and likewise the invention of the Runic characters. He had also the address to persuade his followers that he could over-run the world in the twinkling of an eye; that he had the direction of the air and tempests; that he could transform himself into all shapes, could raise the dead, could foretel things to come, deprive his enemies by enchantment, of health and vigor, and discover all the treasures hid in the earth. They add, that by his tender and melodious airs, he could make the plains and Mountains open and expand with delight; and that the ghosts, thus attracted, would leave their infernal caverns, and stand motionless about him. Nor was he less dreadful and furious in battle; changing himself into the shape of a bear, a wild bull, or a lion, and amidst ranks of enemies committing the most horrible devastation, without receiving any wound himself. When he had extended his power, and increased his fame by conquest and artifice, he determined to die in a different way from other men. He assembled his friends and with the sharp point of a lance, he made in his body nine different wounds in the form of a circle; and when expiring he declared that he was going to Scythia, where he should become an immortal God. He added, that he would prepare bliss and felicity for those of his countrymen who lived a virtuous life, who fought with bravery, and who died like heroes in the field of battle. This injunction had the desired effect: his countrymen superstitiously believed him, and constantly recommended themselves to his protection when they engaged in battle; and they entreated him to receive the souls of such as fell in war.

It remains to give some account of the reputed author of these odes.

Sæmund was born in the year 1056. His father’s name was Sigfus, and his mother’s Thoreya.

Sæmund, when a boy, leaving his native country, travelled into foreign parts for the sake of acquiring knowledge; and dwelt there so long, that he was nearly forgotten by his countrymen; till Jonas the son of Ogmund, bishop of Holensis, travelling to Rome, searched for him and brought him back to his native country, in the year 1078.

When he returned home, he occupied a farm which was his hereditary possession, called Odda, situated in the Southern part of the island, and took upon himself the sacerdotal office. In this he behaved so well that he was called the ornament and support of the Icelandic church; and this not without sufficient reason, for he was by far the most learned and pious of all his cotemporaries.

He married a wife whose name was Gudruna, the daughter of Kolbein, by whom he had many children, who were esteemed among the most illustrious of the island. Sæmund himself was one of the governors, and shewed himself well qualified for that high office, in the dispute that took place between Thorgil the son of Odd, and Halfid the son of Mar. These were men of great power, and had engaged on their separate sides, almost all the nobility of the island; but by the good offices of Sæmund and others, they became speedily reconciled. To Sæmund it was, on account of his great knowledge in antiquity, that Arras, as well as others, submitted the histories they had written of their country for revision.

Sæmund, not content to inspect the works of others, began, after the example of Arras, to rescue the antiquities of his country from oblivion. He was then about 70 years of age. It is certain that he wrote the history of Norway, from Harald Harfagre, or the Fair-haired, to Magnus the good. A few remains of this history are seen in the writings of an anonymous person, who from documents thence derived, has written in Icelandic verses of little note, an account of a series of Kings, and the ancient history of Norway.

According to some, he died at the age of eighty, in the year 1133; and according to others, 1135. But the accounts that are left of him are so blended with the fabulous, that it is very difficult at this distance of time to speak with certainty either about himself or his writings.

Concerning the Edda, which is ascribed to Sæmund, it is necessary to observe, that for several ages it remained undiscovered; but was at last found by one Bryniolfus Suenonius in the year 1639. It was then written on parchment, in a very obscure character; but by the labors of the learned discoverer, its meaning was fully ascertained, and an exact transcript of it taken. He it was who first called it the Edda of Sæmund. Thormadus Torfæus obtained the manuscript of Bryniolfus. He was Historiographer to the King of Norway, and a great Antiquarian. For a long time it was preserved in his Museum, and shown only as a curiosity to the learned. Resenius at last obtained the manuscript from Torfæus. Beside this, there were several writings which could challenge as great, if not greater antiquity than the manuscript of Bryniolfus. They were all, however, connected together, and mutually threw light upon each other.

There are two opinions concerning the title given to these Odes. One is of Olaus, who in his notes to the Voluspa, asserts that Sæmund, wishing to rescue from oblivion the Mythology of his ancestors, which in his time was chiefly traditionary, composed those odes in the Icelandic language which bear his name, and having completed them, gave them the name of Edda. Opposite to this is the opinion of Gudmundus; according to whom Sæmund was the first person who introduced the knowledge of the latin into the island, and translated the popular odes he there found, written in the Runic character, into that language: neither does he think that he added to, or altered them in the least. Resenius, in his preface to the Voluspa, seems to have adopted the same opinion. Bryniolfus and Wormius were of the former opinion. But however it is, the great antiquity of these odes must be acknowledged. Runalfus Jonas, in his dissertation on the elements of the Northern languages, does not scruple to assert, that the mythology of these odes, and probably a great part of the odes themselves, are as ancient as the times when the Asiatics first came into the North of Europe. The opinions contained in these odes, therefore, he traces up to the Erythrean Sybil, which is known to have existed before the times of the Trojan war.

To the attentive reader of the Northern antiquities, a striking similarity will appear between them and the Grecian. Odin appears to be the Northern Adonis. He was beloved by Frigga, who represents Venus, and is killed at last by a Wolf, as Adonis was by a boar. He may also be compared with Mercury, on account of his eloquence, and authority over the souls of departed heroes, when they arrive at Valhalla. Horace says of Mercury—

Tu pias lætis animas reponis
Sedibus, virgaque levem coerces
Aurea torbam, superis Deorum
Gratus, et imis.

Lok may be compared to the Apollo of the Grecians. Apollo was believed to be the author of plagues; so we find in the Voluspa, Lok threatening the Gods that he would spread infection through the air. In the twilight of the Gods, also, he is to fight with, and destroy Heimdaller, the God of the Air. Apollo, by the Grecians, is called Loxias, either, it is supposed, on account of the obliquity of the Zodiac, in which the sun goes, or the ambiguity of his oracles, or lastly from λοχος, insidiæ. This exactly agrees with the character of Lok, who is called the architect of guile, &c. The wolf also was sacred to Apollo, and Fenrir, the most voracious of wolves, was the son of Lok. At the feast of Ager, he seems to have acted the part of Momus. There is an odd coincidence of thought between this ode and the wanton wife of Bath. Thor in many things is similar to Hercules. He fought with the serpent of Midgard— Hercules with the Hydra: he overcame the Giants—so did Hercules. The armour of Thor and Hercules bear also some resemblance. The former carried a Mallet, wore a girdle of courage, and defended his hands with gauntlets— Hercules had his Club, his Lion’s skin, and his Cæsti. Thor also bears some analogy to the Grecian Jupiter who overthrew the Giants with his thunder as Thor did with his mallet. Balder, on account of his beauty, was supposed to be the God of the sun. It is said that all nature, together with Frigga and the Gods, grieved for his death—this seems very analagous to the fables of Adonis and Atys. Tyr answers to Mars, and also to Hercules. One fought with Cerberus, the other with Garmer. Heimdaller presided over the Ether. This was the office that the Grecians assigned to Minerva. There is also a similarity of names between the Northern and Grecian Goddesses—Frigga sounds like Dea Phrygia, Loduna like Latona. For more reasons than this, Loduna may be supposed to be the Grecian Latona, for they were both supposed to inhabit an Island, undisturbed with storms, fertile in the extreme, and cloathed with verdure twice in the year. Freya bears some resemblance to Venus; she was inconsolable at the loss of her husband, as Venus was at the loss of Adonis; the pig was sacrificed to Venus, and the boar to Freya; Freya and Frigga moreover, bear some resemblance to Juno and Diana, because, like them, they were invoked by pregnant women. The Nornæ of the Northern nations, seem to answer to the Parcæ of the Greeks and Latins, for they were equally esteemed the arbiters of the life of men. The Northern notions concerning Genii who shun the light, magic rites, and the emigration of the soul from the body, may be traced to the Orphic mysteries of Thrace. Odin’s head of Mimer may be compared to the head of Orpheus, which was said to utter oracles; and Heidruna, the goat of Odin, to that by which Jupiter was nourished. To these similitudes may be added also, the eyes of the sons of Thiaz, which like those of Argus were converted into stars, that ornamented the tail of the bird of Juno. The whole earth was also bound by Juno, not to reveal the place where Latona brought forth: Frigga, in the same manner, exacted an oath from Nature, not to hurt her favorite Balder. Sigard eat the heart and drank the blood of a serpent, by means of which he was enabled to understand the language of birds; the same circumstance is related also of Democritus, Melampus, and Apollonius Thyaneus. All these circumstances plainly demonstrate the antiquity of the Northern Mythology.

With respect to the morals of these Odes, it may be observed, that the fate of Freyer, like that of Phaeton, arose from the excess of curiosity; for through that he fell in love with a woman who was a mortal, lost his sword, and fell in his conflict with Surtur. Tyr lost his hand as a punishment for his temerity; and learnt by sad experience that, in audaces non sit audacia tuta. We see, in the song of Harbard, the presumptous strength of Thor ridiculed by Odin; and the excellencies of the mind advantageously contrasted with it.

To comprehend fully in all its parts, the meaning of the Northern mythology, requires a second Apollo or Œdipus. The eagle, therefore, the ash of Yggdrasil, Nidhogger gnawing at its roots, and Ratatosk the squirrel, with many other circumstances, must ever remain enveloped in obscurity.

Verstegan, a learned writer of Northern antiquities in the reign of Charles the First, is of opinion that the Northern and Grecian Mythologies are in no way connected together. But that when the Romans carried their arms into the North of Europe, curiosity led them to trace analogies between the two religions; and the vanquished perhaps flattered their conquerors in assimilating the name and character of their Deities, as much as possible, to those who were held in esteem among the Romans.

The translator has omitted one ode in this series, on account of its containing nothing of the Northern Mythology. It is filled with little else but the absurd superstitions of the Church of Rome.

Bristol, Nov. 1, 1797.

1. If any person would wish to see this question more fully discussed he will find it in Percy’s Northern Antiquities.