Journal of American Folk-Lore/Volume 13/Issue 51/Bibliographical Notes

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.

BOOKS.

Zum Animismus der Südamerikanischen Indianer, von Theodor Koch (Supplement zu Band XIII. Internationales Archiv f. Ethnographie). Leiden: E. J. Brill. 1900. Pp. viii, 146.

In this elaborate essay, which is provided with an excellent index (135–145, three columns to a page) and a less satisfactory bibliography (pp. vii.–viii.), the author confines himself to the record and discussion of animistic phenomena among the Indians of South America alone, not venturing upon comparisons with similar phenomena in other regions of the globe. The value of his compilation is increased by the fact that Dr. Koch was himself a member of the Meyer Expedition to the sources of the Xingú, being thus enabled to add to his material many data obtained by him on the spot. The topics treated of are: The Indians' idea of the soul; the transition of the soul into the bodies of animals; the souls of the dead as spirits; the soul as the cause of disease and death and defences against these; protective measures against the spirit of the dead; the other world. Rejecting the earlier view (shared by Bastian) that death gave rise to the primitive theories of soul-phenomena, Koch adopts the Peschel-Tylor view that the belief in a soul was reached by savages through observation of dream-occurrences. In support of this theory he utilizes the rich material recently published by von den Steinen, Ehrenreich, and others concerning the "dream-life" of the Brazilian Indians. He points out that the Indians' idea of the nature of the soul during sleep and during the narcosis of the "medicine-man" is the same, and that several tribes denote this narcosis by the same word as that for "death." The Otomacs call the condition induced by tobacco-smoke "day-dreaming," "dreaming with open eyes," etc. Dreams are so real to some of these Indian tribes that their theory of the soul and of the future life seems to rest upon as positive knowledge as lies at the bottom of any of their beliefs.

In the transition of the soul (during sleep, in the narcosis, after death) into the bodies of beasts and birds, the natural predilections of certain tribes for certain creatures often crop out. The great power of the "medicine-man" arises from the belief that he can change himself into animals, birds, etc., during his lifetime, and can traffic with all sorts of souls, bestial or aviform. Another very common belief is that the souls of the dead, which, though human-like in shape, are invisible to those awake, appear in sleep and dreams, most frequently as evil spirits, who can be conjured up also by "medicine-men." Most to be feared of all such spirits are the souls of the "medicine-men," whose graves even are greatly dreaded.

Hardly any native tribe of South America, if we believe the author, attributes disease and death to natural causes. They are ascribed to the powerful "medicine-men," to the evil-minded souls of the dead, who hover about the living eager to work ill. Needless to say that in South America it is the fundamental idea of innumerable ceremonies to prevent the dead from coming back to earth to plague the living. To that end, special pains are taken with the funeral, etc.; sometimes companions, wives, relatives, are buried with him; sacrifices of infinite variety are made; a scapegoat is employed; self-mutilation, etc., of the survivors is ordained, likewise tastings and similar procedures; fires are kept up on the grave, etc. Other more forcible means, too, are often employed: The hut in which the man died is cleansed, abandoned, or destroyed; the return of the dead is barred (he is buried a long way from home; obstacles are put in his path; loud cries and noises are made to drive him off; the corpse, the grave, etc.. are treated in a fashion likely to hinder or prevent the movements of the spirit; the name of the dead is left unspoken, etc.) in a hundred diverse ways.

The section on "Mourning for the Dead" (pp. 101–117) is very interesting. Among other things Dr. Koch notes that mourning often continues for a very long time, the funeral songs and ceremonies being repeated sometimes until nature can no more ; that these ceremonies are mostly left to the women; that the mourning, weeping, etc., are not infrequently "put on," the funeral ceremony often quite formal, with set phrases, etc.; that the mourning is often begun before the death of the patient; that strangers and parties not at all connected with the dead often join in "loud and long." Sometimes it is probable we have in this "mourning" a custom originally dictated by fear, practised as a means of protection, but sunk in the course of time into an empty ceremonial. The existence of such "reductions" among primitive peoples is a matter that merits further investigation.

Another interesting section of the essay is that which treats of "the other world and the future life" (pp. 117–132). That the "other world" lies in some part of the earth is a belief common to many tribes; others, like the Matacos, place it underground ; others, still, located it in the stars, the sun, etc. Worthy of remark is the Bakairí idea that heaven and earth lay once beside each other, and the transit was easy; but too many people died in heaven, so they settled on the earth, causing the sky to rise up where it now is. As to the manner of life in the other world, opinions differ among the South American Indians. Many tribes believe it to be a continuation (sometimes intensified) of life on earth with the same actions, institutions, etc.; others hold that only the "good" or "brave" go to heaven, or have the best places there. Often the passage into the next world is thought to be very difficult, with many obstacles in the way, so that the "medicine-man" has to be called upon to "make the path straight." Some tribes, like the Marauhas, e. g., show, according to the author, the results of missionary influence. Dr. Koch believes that no independently developed "theory of recompense," in our sense, exists among any South American Indians, although many tribes have the idea, more or less, that the condition of life in the next world is in some way or other connected with actions during life in this.

The author has not fully digested his material, which needs further study and consideration. His essay is, however, a collection of folk-lore data of the highest value, and will be welcomed by all students of the mind of primitive man.

Alex. F. Chamberlain.

Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. Volume III. Anthropology II. I. Symbolism of the Huichol Indians. By Carl Lumholtz. New York, May, 1900. Pp. 228. Maps, Plates i.–iv., 298 figures. Fol.

This well-printed and profusely illustrated study is a credit alike to the author and to the Museum. The author visited the Huichols in 1895–1896, and again in the spring of 1898, spending altogether more than a year amongst them and their neighbors the Coras. After a "Brief Sketch of the Country and Tribe" (pp. 5–23), the author discusses in detail: Gods and their Paraphernalia (pp. 24–82); Ceremonial Arrows (pp. 83–107); Shields (pp. 108–153); "Eyes," or crosses of bamboo-splints or straws, interwoven with colored twine or yarn in the form of a square (pp. 154–160); Votive Bowls (pp. 161–168); The Ark of the Deluge Legend (pp. 169–173); The Shaman's Plumes, and Objects connected with Feast-Making (pp. 174–196); Facial Paintings (pp. 196–203); Miscellaneous Symbolic Objects (pp. 204–208). Pages 209–217 are occupied with the "Conclusion," and the work ends with three good indexes (not alphabetical but topical),—one of "Prayers, with their representative Symbols," one of "Symbols and their Significance," and one of "Objects and Ideas, and their representative Symbols."

The Huichol Indians (their Mexican name Huicholes seems to be a corruption of the tribal designation Vīrárika, Vīšálika) occupy at present a territory some 40 miles by 25, exceedingly rugged and difficult of access, watered by the Chapalagana River, in the district of Colotlan, State of Xalisco, Mexico. They number some 4000 souls, speak a language akin to Nahuatl, and while some have put on an external show of Christianity for selfish purposes, "their ancient beliefs, customs, and ceremonies all remain in their pristine vigor, these Indians jealously guarding their country against encroachment by the whites" (p. 5). In spite of the missionary work of the past we are told: "To-day there is no priest among them, the churches are in ruins, and the Huichols are living in the same state of barbarism as when Cortés first put foot on Mexican soil. The introduction of sheep, cattle, and iron implements has modified to some extent their mode of life, but not so much as one would expect." It is of such a people, whose life is religious, and "from the cradle to the grave wrapped up in symbolism;" who spend a great deal of their time at ceremonies and feasts; and whose idea of the perfect life was expressed by one of them- selves in the words "to pray for luck to Tatévali [the god of fire], and to put up snares for the deer," that Mr. Lumholtz has so much that is valuable and interesting to relate. Among the deities of the Huichols are: Grandfather Fire (Tatévali), to whom belong the macaw, the royal eagle, the cardinal-bird, the tiger, the lion, and the opossum,—also herbs and grass; Great-Grandfather Deer-Tail (Tatótsi Mára Kwári), a second god of fire, who is also a singing shaman, to whom the white-tailed hawk belongs; Father Sun (Tayaú), to whom belong the turkey, the rabbit, the tiger, the red-tailed hawk, the quail, the giant woodpecker, the swallow, and the cardinal-bird; The Setting Sun (Sakaimóka), the assistant of Father Sun; Elder Brother, the god of wind or air, the messenger of the gods,—to him belong the deer, the rattlesnake, the rabbit, the gray squirrel, the hummingbird, all parrots, certain hawks, the owl, the hen, the cock; Grandmother Growth (Takótsi Nākawé), the producer of all vegetation, and the Corn Mother, to whom belong squashes, beans, and sheep.—she is also the mother of the gods; Mother East-Water (Tāté Naaliwámi), whose baton is the lightning, and whose skirt is the flowers that follow the rain,—to her belong cattle, mules, and horses; Mother West-Water (Tāté Kyewimóka), to whom belong deer, corn, and the raven; Mother South-Water (Tāté Rapawiyéma), to whom belongs the seed-corn; Mother North-Water (Tāté Haútse Kūpúri, "mother cotton-wool, rain and fog hanging in the trees and grass"), to whom belong corn, squashes, beans, flowers, cattle, mules, horses, and sheep; Young Mother Eagle (Tāté Vêlika Uimáli), whose dress is the stars, and who holds the world in her talons. The moon (not highly venerated by the Huichols) is a grandmother, and has to do chiefly with making native beer and protecting against the god of death (Tokákami). The stars are all gods or goddesses and the morning-star (these Indians bathe in the morning at dark) is the one from which they "gain knowledge" and "medicine" for rain. Another figure in Huichol mythology is Grandfather Kauyumáli, the god who "put the world into shape." The motif of Huichol religion is "the desire of producing rain, and thus of successfully raising corn, their principal food" (p. 24). According to their myths, "corn was once deer, the deer having been the chief source of food in earliest times," hence they have come to look upon their later acquisitions, cattle and sheep, as corn also,—hikuli (Anhalonium lewinsii) is likewise corn. The mythology of the Huichols moves about "a conception of the four elements,—fire and air (male), earth and water (female)." The main thought of their prayers is "food, corn, beans, and squashes." Even in hunting the deer, "the primary consideration is that the success of the chase means good crops of corn." An interesting point brought out is that "arrows and back-shields seem to convey mostly individual (or personal) prayers, while front-shields mostly serve to convey tribal ones. 'Eyes' cover both purposes to an almost equal extent." The richness and elaborateness of all this symbolism, with its ambiguity, etc., is well portrayed in the shields, discs, drums, bowls, arrows, sticks, "toy" implements, etc., of which figures with detailed explanations are given in the text. The following comment of the author deserves reproduction here: "Although the gods are obviously natural phenomena personified, and besides represent the four elements, they are also, to the Indian, human; in fact, ancient Huichols engaged in much the same occupations as the tribe of to-day, whose customs and religion they originated" (p. 212). Of the front-shield we are told that it is "the most important symbol of the Huichols, and specially adapted to serve as a kind of sign-language between man and god, conveying prayers and adoration, as well as religious and cosmic ideas." The comprehensive use of the word nealíka = "front- shield," "face," "appearance," "picture," suggests, Dr. Lumholtz thinks, that "the Huichols have in it a veritable word for 'symbol.'" Dr. Lumholtz points out some interesting resemblances between Huichol symbolism and that of the Zuñis, besides a striking likeness between the Dresden Codex God of Death and the Huichol God of Death,—the locust and tiger being associated with each. These facts open the way for further comparative study which it is to be hoped Dr. Lumholtz will undertake.

Alex. F. Chamberlain.

JOURNALS.

1. American Anthropologist. (Washington.) Vol. II. No. 2, April–June, 1900. Oraibi marriage customs. H. R. Voth.—Basketry designs of the Maidu Indians of California. R. B. Dixon.—-Mythical monsters. D. S. Lamb.—Periodical literature. (Continued in No. 3.)—No. 3, July–September. The Sedna cycle: a study in myth evolution. H. N. Wardle.

2. The American Antiquarian. (Chicago.) Vol. XXII. No. 4, July–August, 1900. The ethnic variations of myths. J. Fraser.—Shrines near Cochite, New Mexico. F. Starr.—No. 5, November–December. Anthropological notes. A. F. Chamberlain.

3. The American Kitchen Magazine. (Boston.) Vol. XIV No. 1, October, 1900. Some homely viands. F. D. Bergen.

4. The Open Court. (Chicago.) Vol. XIV. No. 10, October, 1900. Certain aspects of the Eleusinian problem. I. Primitive rites of purification. C. J. Wood.—No. 2, November. II. Primitive rites of purification. C. J. Wood.

5. Folk-Lore. (London.) Vol. XI. No. 2, June, 1900. Two thousand years of a charm against the child-stealing witch. M. Gaster.—Pre-animistic religion. R. R. Marett.—Obituary: Lieut.-Gen. Pitt Rivers.—Reviews: Works of H. Ling Roth, The Aborigines of Tasmania; Archaeological Reports, Ontario, 1898 and 1899; Saga of King Sverri of Norway, translated by J. Sephton; A. S. Palmer, Sketches on biblical subjects, No. II.; A. Lang, The Homeric hymns; M. Rosenfeld, Der Midrasch-Deuteronomium Rabba par. IX. and XI., 2–10; H. Zahler, Der krankheit im volksglauben des Simmenthals; Rugensche skizzen ; O. Daenhardt, Naturgeschichtliche volksmärchen; C. Zibrt, Literatura kulturne-historicka; L. A. Fisa, Merry Suffolk; F. Starr, American Indians; J. Deniker, Races of Man.—Correspondence: Month names. May-Day. Burial customs.—Miscellanea: Welton farmhouse. Devonshire folk-lore. Hindu notes. Funeral processions. First foot in Lancashire. Folk-lore from Calymnos.—Bibliography.—No. 3, September. Animal superstitions and totemism. N. W. Thomas.—The ancient Teutonic priesthood. H. Munro Chadwick.—Reviews: Works of F. Boas, The mythology of the Bella Coola Indians; W. W. Skeat, Malay magic; C. G. Leland, Aradia; A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians; W. L. Ripley, Selected bibliography of anthropology and ethnology of Europe; L. Scherman and F. S. Krauss, Allgemeine methodik der volkskunde; R. Petsch, Neue Beitrage zur kenntniss der volksräthsels: Works on Slavic and Roumanian tales, by W. W. Strickland and L. Kitzo; H. Chauvet, Folk-lore Catalan; W. Crooke, The talking thrush; J. Spence, Shetland folk-lore; D. Deemey, Peasant lore from Gaelic Ireland; T. Wilson, Bluebeard.—Correspondence: Pre-animistic religion. Medical superstitions; snakes. More snake-lore. Horses' heads. Weathercocks, etc. Inscriptions on Roman lamps.—Miscellanea: Korean beliefs. Folk-tales from the Ægean. Death and burial customs in Wiltshire. Obituary: Mary N. Kingsley.—Bibliography.

6. L'Anthropologie. (Paris.) Vol. XI. No. 4, 1900. Quelques observations sur le tabou. S. Reinach.—Sur les traces probable de civilisation égyptienne et d'hommes de race blanche à la côte d'ivoire.—M. Delafosse.

7. Mélusine. (Paris.) Vol. X. No. 2, March–April, 1900. Mirages visuels et auditifs. Lefébure.—Les préférés du bon Dieu. H. Gaidoz.—La fascination. (Continued in Nos. 3–4.) J. Tuchmann.—Béotiana. F. S. Krauss.—Les noyés.—Contes d'animaux du Lavedan. Camelat.—Dictons et proverbes bretons. IX. E. Ernault.

8. Revue des Traditions Populaires. (Paris.) Vol. XV. No. 4, April, 1900. Usages et coutumes du pays nantais. E. Vaugeois.—Contes et légendes arabes. R. Basset.—Les redevances féodales. IX. Fin du xviii. siècle. (Continued in No. 5.) L. Desaivre.—No. 5, May. Traditions populaires relatives à la parole. Chevrin.—Usages et chansons de Mai. IX. Haute-Bretagne. F. Marguer.—Nos. 6–7, June–July. La mer et les eaux. CVII. L'appareillage. —Objets enterrés avec le mort. XXX. L. de V. H.—Coutumes et superstitions de la Casamance. P. Arnaud-Régis.—No. 8, August. Coutumes et superstitions du Loir-et-Cher. F. Houssay.—Contes et légendes de la Haute-Bretagne. XXXII. –XXXVII. L. de V. H.—No. 9, September. Congrès Internationale des Traditions Populaires. {{sc|P. Sébillot.—Le culte des fontaines dans le Var. S. de Kersaint-Gilly.—Pèlerins et pèlerinages. XLII. La fontaine sacrée du Vignal. F. Pommerol.

9. A Tradiçao. (Serpa.) Vol. II. No. 5, May, 1900. Os proverbios e a medicina. A. Pimentel.—O Senor Sete. T. Coelho.—O tamborileiro. A. de Mello Breyner.}—As Bôasfestas. P. A. d'Azevelo.—A caşa no concelho de Serpa. A. de Mello Breyner.—Modas-estribillos alemtejenas. M. Dias Nunes.—Contos Algarvios. A. d'Oliveira.

10. Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde. (Zürich.) Vol. IV. No. 3, August, 1900. "Evénements particuliers." O. Chambaz.—Kirsche und kirschbaum im spiegel schweizerdeutscher sprache und sitte. A. Seiler.—Novellette morali raccolte a Bedano (Ticino). V. Pellandini.—Der Ring des Gyges in der Schweitz. T. v. Liebenau.—Volkstümliches aus dem Frei- und Kelleramt. S. Meier.—Einige sagen und traditionen aus dem Freiamt, im Aargau. B. Reber.—Miszellen. Fragekasten.

11. Alemannia. (Freiburg i. B.) Vol. XXVII. No. 3, 1900. Volkskunde von Müchenloch bei Neckargemeinde. K. Arnold.

12. Hermes. (Berlin.) Vol. XXXV. No. 4, 1900. Der cult der winde. P. Stengel.

13. Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde. (Berlin.) Vol. X. No. 3, 1900. Schlesische Pfingstgebrauche. P. Drechsler.—Tom Tit Tot. Ein beitrag zur vergleichenden märchenkunde. G. Polivka.—Verschwindende erntegebräuche. R. Mielke.—Napoleons-gebete und spottlieder. R. F. Kaindl.—Bauerische geschichten. E. H. Raff.—Eine heanzische bauernhochzeit. J. R. Bünker.—Von dem deutschen grenzposten Lusern in wälschen Südtirol. J. Bacher.—Der klausenbaum. M. Höfler.—Kleine mittheilungen.—Bücheranzeigen.

14. The Indian Antiquary.—(Bombay.) No. 362, March, 1900. The folk-lore in the legends of the Panjab. R. C. Temple.—Notes and Queries: Superstitions among Hindus in the Central provinces. An explanation of intermarriage between the families of saints and kings in India. Some marriage customs among the Khatris of the Panjab.—No. 364, May. The thirty-seven Nats (spirit of the Burmese). (Continued in Nos. 266, 368, 369.) R. C. Temple.—Notes and Queries: Indian children's bogies. The Janeu, its formation and use. Child-burial.—No. 365, June. Notes and Queries: Form of swearing friendship and brotherhood. Use of censers in India. No. 366, July. Notes and Queries: The bloody hand at Mandalay—the rise of a myth. No. 367, August. Notes on the spirit basis of belief and custom. J. M. Campbell.—Notes and Queries: Marriage customs and Hindus.—No. 368, September. Notes and Queries: Aspect of Hindu worship. Phallic worship in the Himalayas. Bath-customs.—No. 369, October. Notes and Queries: Months in which Hindu marriage is forbidden. A list of the Hindu godlings of Bombay.