Korea & Her Neighbours/Chapter XXXIV
Korean cities without priests or temples ; houses without "god shelves" ; village festivals without a mikoshi or idols carried in festive procession ; marriage and burial without priestly blessing ; an absence of religious ceremonials and sacred books to which real or assumed reverence is paid, and nothing to show that religion has any hold on the popular mind, constitute a singular Korean characteristic.
Putting aside Buddhism with its gross superstitions, practised chiefly in remote places, and the magisterial homage before the Confucian tablets to the memory of the Great Teacher, the popular cult—I dare not call it a religion—consists of a number of observances dictated by the dread of bodiless beings created by Korean fancy, and representing chiefly the mysterious forces of nature. It may be assumed, taking tradition for a guide, as certain of the litanies used in exorcism and invocation were introduced along with Buddhism from China, that Korean imagination has grafted its own fancies on those which are of foreign origin, and which are of by no means distant kinship to those of the Shamanism of northern Asia.
The external evidences of this cult are chiefly heaps of stones on the tops of passes, rude shrines here and there containing tawdry pictures of mythical beings, with the name in Chinese characters below, strings from which depend small bags of rice, worn-out straw shoes, strips of dirty rags, and, though rarely, rusty locks of black hair. Outside of many villages are high posts (not to be confounded with the distance posts) with their tops rudely carved into heads and faces half human, half daemonic, from which straw ropes, with dependent straw tassels, recalling the Shintoism of Japan, are stretched across the road. There are large or distorted trees also, on which rags, ricebags, and old shoes are hung, and under which are heaps of stones at which it is usual for travellers to bow and expectorate. On the ridge poles of royal buildings and city gates, there are rows of grotesque bronze or china figures for the purpose of driving away evil demons, and at crossroads a log of wood perforated like a mouse-trap, and with one hole bunged up, over which travellers step carefully, may some- times be seen. In cities the beating of drums accompanied by the clashing of cymbals vies with the laundry sticks in breaking the otherwise profound stillness of night, and in travelling through the country, the mu-tang or sorceress is constantly to be seen going through various musical and dancing performances in the midst of a crowd in front of a house where there is sickness.
I have referred to these things in earlier chapters, but the subject is such an important one, and the influence on Korean life of the belief in daemons is so strong and injurious, that I feel justified in laying before my readers at some length such details of D(Bmonism as have hitherto been ascertained. There is an unwillingness to speak to foreigners on this topic, and inquirers may have been purposely misled, but enough has been gained to make it likely that further inquiry will be pro- ductive of very valuable results.1 The superstitions already mentioned, however trivial in themselves, point to that which underlies all religion, the belief in something outside ourselves which is higher or more powerful than ourselves.
It is indeed asserted by many of the so-called educated class that the only cult in Korea is ancestor worship, and they pro- fess to ridicule the rags, cairns, shrines, and the other paraphernalia of daemon-worship, as the superstition of women and coolies, and it is probable that in Seoul, at least, few men of the upper class are believers, or patronize the rites otherwise than as unmeaning customs which it would be impolitic to dis- continue, but it is safe to say that from the Palace to the hovel all women, and a majority of men, go through the forms which, influencing Buddhism, and possibly being modified by it, have existed in Korea for more than fifteen centuries.
Without claiming any degree of scientific accuracy for the term Shamanism, as applied to this cult in Korea, it is more convenient to use it, the word daemon having come to bear a popular meaning which prohibits its use where good spirits as well as bad are indicated. So far as I know, Shamanism exists only in Asia, and flourishes specially among the tribes north of the Amur, the Samoyedes, Ostiaks, etc., as well as among hill tribes on the southwestern frontier of China. The term Shamati may be applied to all persons, male or female, whose profession it is to have direct dealings with daemons, and to possess the power of securing their good will and avert- ing their malignant influences by various magical rites, charms, and incantations, to cure diseases by exorcisms, to predict future events, and to interpret dreams.
Korean Shamanism or Daemonism differs from that of northern Asia in its mildness, possibly the result of early Buddhist influence. It is the cult of daemons not necessarily evil, but usually the enemies of man, and addicted to revenge and caprice. Though the Shamans are neither an order, nor linked by a common organization, they are practically recog- nized as a priesthood, in so far as it is through their offices that the daemons are approached and propitiated on behalf of the people. It is supposed that the Shaman or wizard was one of the figures in the dawn of Korean history, and that Daemonism in its early stage was marked by human sacrifices. Shamans in the train of royalty, and as a part of the social organization of the Peninsula, figure in very early Korean story, and they appear to have been the chief, if not the only, "religious" instructors.
One class among the Shamans is incorporated into one of those guilds which are the Trades Unions of Korea, and the Government has imposed registration on another class.2 There are now two principal classes of Shamans, the Fa?i-su and the mu-tang. The Pan-su are blind sorcerers, and those parents are fortunate who have a blind son, for he is certain to be able to make a good living and support them in their old age. The Fan-sii were formerly persons of much distinction in the king- dom, but their social position has been lowered during the present dynasty, though in the present reign their influence in the Palace, and specially with the late Queen, has wrought much evil. The chief officials of the Pan-su Guild in Seoul hold the official titles of Cham-pan3 and Sewig-ji from the Government, which gives prestige to the whole body. In order to guard their professional interests, the Pan-su have local guilds, and in the various sections "clubhouses" built out of their own funds. The central office of the Pan-sic guild in Seoul was built and maintained by Government, and the two chief officials of the guild hold, or held, quasi-official rank.
It appears that admission into the fraternity is only granted to an applicant on his giving proof of proficiency in the knowl- edge of a cumbrous body of orally transmitted Shaman tra- dition, wisdom and custom, much of it believed by the people to be 4,000 years old, and embracing scraps of superstition from the darkest arcana of Buddhism, as well as fragments of Confucianism. The neophyte has to learn of "the existence, nature, and power of daemons, their relations with man, the efficacy of exorcism through a magic ritual, and the genuine and certain character of the results of divination." He must meditate on "the customs, habits, and weaknesses of every class in Korean society in order to deal knowingly with his clients. A slight acquaintance with Confucianism must enable him to give a flavor of learning to his speech, and he must be well drilled in the methods of exorcisms, incantations, magic spells, divination, and the manufacture of charms and/ amulets."
The services of sorcerers or geomancers are invariably called for in connection with the choice of sites for houses and graves, in certain contracts, and on the occasion of unusual calamities, sickness, births, marriages, and the purchase of land. The chief functions of the Shaman are, the influencing of daemons by ritual and magical rites, propitiating them by offerings, exorcisms, and the procuring of oracles. In their methods, dancing, gesticulations, a real or feigned ecstasy, and a drum play an important part. The fees of the Shamans are high, and it is believed that at the lowest computation, Daemonism costs Korea two million five hundred thousand dollars annually ! In order to obtain favors or avert calamities, it is necessary to employ the Shamans as mediators, and it is their fees, and not the cost of the offerings which press so / heavily on the people.
Among the reasons which render the Shaman a necessity are these. In Korean belief, earth, air, and sea, are peopled by : daemons. They haunt every umbrageous tree, shady ravine, crystal spring, and mountain crest. On green hill slopes, in peaceful agricultural valleys, in grassy dells, on wooded up- lands, by lake and stream, by road and river, in north, south, east, and west they abound, making malignant sport out of human destinies. They are on every roof, ceiling, fireplace, kang and beam. They fill the chimney, the shed, the living room, the kitchen — they are on every shelf and jar. In thou- sands they waylay the traveller as he leaves his home, beside him, behind him, dancing in front of him, whirring over his head, crying out upon him from earth, air, and water. They are numbered by thousands of billions, and it has been well said that their ubiquity is an unholy travesty of the Divine Omnipresence.4 This belief, and it seems to be the only one he has, keeps the Korean in a perpetual state of nervous appre- hension, it surrounds him with indefinite terrors, and it may truly be said of him that he "passes the time of his sojourning here in fear." Every Korean home is subject to daemons, here, there, and everywhere. They touch the Korean at every point in life, making his well-being depend on a continual series of acts of propitiation, and they avenge every omission with merciless severity, keeping him under this yoke of bond- age from birth to death.
The phrase "daemon-worship" as applied to Korean Shamanism is somewhat misleading. These legions of spirits which in Korean belief peopled the world, are of two classes, the first alone answering to our conception of demons. These are the self-existent spirits, unseen enemies of man, whose de- signs are always malignant or malicious, and spirits of de- parted persons, who, having died in poverty and manifold dis- tresses, are unclothed, hungry, and shivering vagrants, bring- ing untold calamities on those who neglect to supply their wants. It is true, however, that about 80 per cent, of the legions of spirits are malignant. The second class consists also of self-existent spirits, whose natures are partly kindly, and of departed spirits of prosperous and good people, but even these are easily offended and act with extraordinary capricious- ness. These, however, by due intercessions and offerings, may be induced to assist man in obtaining his desires, and may aid him to escape from the afflictive power of the evil daemons.
The comfort and prosperity of every individual depend on his ability to win and keep the favor of the latter class.
Koreans attribute every ill by which they are afflicted to daemoniacal influence. Bad luck in any transaction, official malevolence, illness, whether sudden or prolonged, pecuniary misfortune, and loss of power or position are due to the malignity of daemons. It is over such evils that the Pan-su is supposed to have power, and to be able to terminate them by magical rites, he being possessed by a powerful daemon, whose strength he is able to wield.
As an example of the modus operandi exorcism in sickness which is believed to be the work of an unclean daemon may be taken. The Fan-sic arrives at the house, and boldly undertakes the expulsion of the foul spirit, the process being divided into four stages.5
1. By a few throws from the tortoise divining box, the sorcerer discovers the demon's nature and character, after which he seeks for an auspicious hour and makes arrangements for the next stage.
2. Gaining control of the daemon follows. The Pan-su equips himself with a wand of oak or pine a foot and half long, and a bystander is asked to hold this in an upright position on an ironing stone. Magic formulas are recited till the rod be- gins to shake and even dance on the stone, this activity being believed to be the result of the daemon having entered the wand. At this stage a talk takes place to test the accuracy of the divination of the daemon's name and nature, and of the cause of the affliction. The Pan-su manages the questions so dexterously that a simple yes is indicated by motion in the wand, while no is expressed by quiescence. At this stage the daemon is given the choice of quietly disappearing ; after which, if he is obstinate, the Pan-su proceeds to dislodge him.
3. The third stage involves the aid of certain familiars of the Fan-sic. A special wand, made of an eastern branch of a peach tree, which has much repute in expelling daemons, is taken, and is held on a table in a vertical position by an as- sistant. The Pan-sn recites a farther part of his magic ritual, its power being shown by acute movements in the wand in spite of attempts to keep it steady. A parley takes place with the Chang-gun, the spirit who has been summoned to find out his objects. He promises to catch the Chang-kun, the malignant daemon, and after preparations and offerings have been made he is asked to search for him. The man who holds the wand is violently dragged by a supernatural power out of the house to the place where the Chang-kn7i is. Then the Cha7ig-gtin is supposed to seize him, and the wand-holder is dragged back to the house.
4. A bottle with a wide mouth is put on the floor, and alongside it a piece of paper inscribed with the name of the unclean daemon, which has been obtained by divination and parley. The paper being touched with the magic wand jumps into the bottle, which is hastily corked and buried on the hill- ^side or at the crossroads.
This singular form of exorcism has a long and unintelligible ritual, in the cases of those who can afford to pay for it, occu- pying some days, and at greater or lesser length is repeated daily by the Sha?nans throughout Korea. It is usually suc- ceeded by a form known as the Ritual Pacification, which takes a whole night. This is for the purpose of restoring order among the household demons, who have been much up- set by the previous proceedings, cleaning the house, and com- mitting it and its inmates to the protection of the most power- ful members of the Korean daemoniacal hierarchy.
The instruments of exorcism used by the Fan-sii are offerings to be made at various stages of the process, a drum, cymbals, a bell, a divination box, and a wand or wands.
The Shamans claim to have derived many of their very numerous spells and formulas from Buddhists, who on their side assert that dgemon-worship was practised in Korea long before the introduction of Buddhism, and a relic of this wor- ship is pointed out in the custom which prevails in the Korean magistracies of offering to guardian spirits on stone altars on the hills, pigs, or occasionally sheep, before sowing time and after harvest, as well as in case of drought, or other general calamity. This sacrifice is offered by the local magistrate in the king's name, and though identical in form with that offered to Hana7iim (the Lord of Heaven), is altogether distinct from it. Most of the formulae recited by the Shamans have the reputation of being unsafe for ordinary people to use, but in consideration of the possibility of a great emergency, one is provided, which is pronounced absolutely safe. This consists of fifty-six characters which must be recited forwards, back- wards, and sideways, and is called "The twenty-eight stars formula."6
Divination is the second function of the Pan-stif and con- sists in a forecast of the future by means of rituals, known only to himself, associated with the use of certain paraphernalia. This is used also for finding out the result of a venture, or the cause of an existing trouble, and for casting a man's horoscope, i.e. "The four columns of a man's future," these being the hour, day, month, and year of his birth, or rather their four combinations. This horoscope is the crowning function of divination. In these "four columns" the secret of a man's life is hidden, and their relations must govern him in all his actions. When a horoscope contains an arrow, which denotes ill-luck, the Fan-sit corrects the misfortune by formulae used with a bow of peach, with which during the recital he shoots arrows made of a certain reed into a " non-prohibited " quar- ter. One of the great duties of divination is to cast the horo- scope of a bride and bridegroom for an auspicious day for the wedding, for an unlucky one would introduce daemons to the ruin of the new household.
The great strongholds of divination are the "Frog-Boxes" and dice boxes, manufactured for this purpose. The frog box is made like a tortoise, having movable lips, and contains three cash, over which the Pa7i-su repeats a very ancient invocation, which has been translated thus : " Will all you people grant to reveal the symbols." The coins are thrown three times, and the three falls present him with the combinations of characters, out of which he manufactures his oracle. The second implement of divination is a bamboo or brass tube closed at both ends, but with a small hole in one to allow of the exit of small bamboo splinters of which it contains eight. The same thing is to be seen on innumerable altars in China. Each splinter has from one to eight notches on it, and stands for a symbol of certain signs on that divining table 3,000 years old, called the Ho-pai, which is implicitly believed in by the Chinese. Two of these splinters give two sets of char- acters, eight being connected with each symbol. When the Paii-su has obtained these he is ready to evolve his oracle.
Great reliance is placed on the charms which the Pan-su make and sell. Proabably there are few adults or children who do not wear these as amulets. They are generally made in the form of insects, or consist of Chinese characters. They are written on specially prepared yellow paper in red ink, and are regarded as being efficacious against illness and other ca- lamities. Amulets are made of the wood of trees struck by lightning, which is supposed to possess magical qualities.
1I desire again to express my indebtedness to the Rev, G, Heber Jones, of Chemulpo, for the loan of, and the liberty to use, his very careful and painstaking notes on the subject of Korean d^monism, and also to a paper on 77/1? Exorcism of Spirits in Korea, by Dr. Landis of Chemulpo. Apart from the researches of these two Korean scholars, the results of my own inquiry and observation would scarcely have been worth publishing.
2What is true in Korea to-day may be untrue to-morrow. One month there was a police raid in Seoul upon the mu-tang or sorceresses, another the sisterhood was flourishing, and so the pendulum swings.
3Cham-pan is a title of officials of a certain rank in Government Departments in Seoul, and might be rendered Secretary of Department. Seung-ji probably has the same meaning.
4Rev. G. H. Jones.
5This detailed account is from notes kindly lent to me by the Rev. G. H. Jones.
6The twenty-eight constellations, or stellar mansions, referred to in the Shu King, one of the Chinese classical books, showing the close connection between Chinese and Korean superstition. — W. C. H.