Motors and Motor-Driving/Chapter 15

by Alfred Charles William Harmsworth

CHAPTER XV

MOTOR-DRIVING

By S. F. Edge and Charles Jarrott

The motor-car, when in the hands of a careful and experienced driver, is admittedly the safest form of vehicle on the road, the chief reason for this being the rapidity with which it can be stopped, even when travelling at high speeds, and also the ease with which under the same conditions it can be diverted from its course into the direction desired by the driver. These two points are known to nearly every well-informed person, and the knowledge really constitutes a danger to the unaccustomed controller of a car, as road conditions may entirely upset all the previous experience of the novice, and the apparently great simplicity of control inspiring confidence at much too early a stage of his novitiate, he may become a most dangerous user of the road, although driving the simplest form, or rather the most controllable form, of road vehicle.

Every action of starting, stopping, changing, and diverting should be absolutely automatic, and until this has become so slow speeds only should be attempted. A man may be perfectly able to perform all the special driving functions when not flurried, and when his attention is not disturbed by exciting events, but he may become hopelessly involved at the very moment when the greatest skill and judgment are required from him—for instance, when in an emergency the pedal brake ought to be applied, instead of pressing down this brake, which would at once stop the vehicle, he may hurriedly press down the accelerator pedal, which has the effect of increasing the speed, and thus, possibly, an accident of a most serious nature results.

Again, nothing but practical experience will teach a novice the correct speed to drive round a given curve, for the conditions of the road alone may cause a speed perfectly safe on a dry day to be absolutely dangerous on a wet day; probably one quarter the speed possible on a dry day would be too fast and dangerous when the road is wet.

Greasy roads are the greatest danger of all to the novice, and yet when the driver has acquired enough skill to gauge the correct speed to drive over them, and keeps himself within the limit of that speed, there is little or no fear of mishap. Here, again, however, even an experienced driver is sometimes inclined to run the risk of driving the car at a greater speed than the road-surface warrants; and consequently if brakes have to be applied suddenly, and the car pulled up in a short space, there is a possibility of a bad side-slip. The great point on greasy roads is to drive cautiously.

It is an exceedingly awkward and dangerous occurrence when a car runs backwards down a hill, through, perhaps, a chain breaking, or the driver missing the gear in changing speed. This may possibly happen before the novice has ever thought of learning to drive backwards, and the lesson under this nerve-shattering circumstance probably results in his having a big repair bill to face, to say nothing of doctors' bills.

Perhaps in endeavouring to initiate the beginner into the art and apparent mystery of controlling and driving a motor-car, it would be as well to start from the beginning. We will assume that the car has arrived home and everything is ready to set off for the first drive. Although we wish to give all possible hints in this direction, it is well to remember that the greatest safeguard, when you take your first lesson, is to have on the car with you a really good driver so that he may be ready to act if a combination of circumstances should require a rapidity of decision and action that cannot have been acquired by the novice.

Assuming that the vehicle is in perfect condition for use and the engine has been set going, the first thing to do is to examine the ways and means of starting the carriage either forward or backward, to ascertain how to stop it when desired, and steer it from side to side or round a corner, or to avoid an obstacle. We will suppose that the vehicle is of the Panhard type, with wheel steering and single lever at the right-hand side, giving the speeds forward and reverse. On taking a position in the driver's seat with one foot on each side of the steering column, each foot lightly resting on the two driving pedals, it will be found that the left pedal when pressed down disconnects the engine from the driving mechanism, whilst the right one also does this, but at the same time applies a powerful brake to arrest the motion of the vehicle.

Slightly to the right of the right-hand pedal will be found a smaller pedal set somewhat higher than the other two. This is called the 'accelerator pedal,' and its function is to hold out the governor of the engine and cause it to run at a greatly increased velocity, and so force the vehicle to exceed its regulated speeds. The use and misuse of this valuable adjunct to the motor-car engine will be dealt with later.

The change-speed lever is on the right hand, and by its side is another notched lever which applies a band brake to each of the rear-wheel hubs; also when applied it disconnects the engine from the driving mechanism, so that when one wishes to stop, this brake lever first disconnects the engine and then retards the momentum of the car, thus performing the same function as the two pedals operated by the feet and referred to above. With these general points carefully noted, a start may be made, and we will imagine that the car has been standing as it should be when the engine is running, i.e. with the speed lever in the neutral notch and the side brakes on, and thus, of course, the engine disconnected from the gear.

First Speed.—First place the left foot on the left pedal, press this down as far as it will go and hold it there. Then take off the side-brake lever, move the speed lever forward one notch—that is, to the first or low speed and slowly lift the left foot until you feel the engine beginning to move the car. Immediately it does this, if only for a yard or two, press the left pedal down again, so as to get thoroughly accustomed to the feeling of the car moving forward with its own power and yet stopping immediately the pedal for disconnecting the power is pressed down.

When once confidence is acquired, and the novice feels that the car is quite under his control, longer distances, say fifty feet at a time, may be attempted; but as it will be obvious that in this distance some momentum will have been attained, and that even though the left pedal is pressed down the carriage still rolls on, opportunity has now come for making use of the right pedal. This being pressed down gradually by the right foot, at the same time still keeping the left pedal down, applies the band brake and so stops the car.

Second Speed.—Having now thoroughly mastered starting and stopping on the low speed, a change may be made into the second speed. To accomplish this, first get the vehicle running as fast as possible on the first speed, then press down the left pedal quickly, push the speed lever firmly into the second forward notch, and lift up the left pedal gently as when starting. You are now on the second speed, which you will no doubt observe is considerably faster than the lower speed, and the novice should familiarise himself with this in the same way as on the first speed, i.e. letting the car run short distances and thus becoming accustomed to the speed. Keep on the low and second speeds until you feel thoroughly at home and confident that the car will do that which you mechanically direct it to do. Remember that with a motor-car the driver controls the vehicle, and in this it differs from a horse-drawn vehicle, in which the driver is often at the mercy of the animal, to be pulled here, backed there, or upset altogether should this chance to please the noble quadruped.

Third Speed.—The third speed may now be used, and you obtain this under exactly the same circumstances and in exactly the same way as set out in the explanation of changing from the first to the second speed. It will be well if some long runs be taken at this stage, no speed higher than the third being attempted. When this stage is reached, it will be found very much better to take four or five drives of ten miles each, with half an hour or an hour's stoppage between, rather than one continuous drive of forty or fifty miles. Much more rapid progress will be made in this way, and the mental and physical strain is then not noticed, whereas if one long ride is attempted straight off, the novice, when he gets down from the car, will feel uncomfortably tired and exhausted. The next day, if possible, more driving should be undertaken, but this time on the second speed, first directing the steering with one hand and then with the other, so that perfect control can be exercised with either hand, the hand that is more or less at liberty being engaged in taking articles out of the pocket, &c., adjusting the lubricators, pumping oil into the cylinders, and other small details of this sort, which at times it is expedient to do when actually on a journey. One can never feel at all secure until either hand will do all that is necessary with regard to steering. When one is thoroughly familiar with steering with one hand on the second speed, then higher speed can be attempted.

How to Change Speed properly.—In changing speeds there are various things to be avoided, and the learner will very quickly realise that it is most difficult, if not well nigh impossible, to change speed without withdrawing the clutch; which operation is performed by pressing down the left pedal. In any case if he does succeed in the attempt, it will be at the expense of a great deal of noise and damage to the teeth of the gear-wheels. Under all circumstances the teeth are made to engage with one movement, and if at the beginning it is found that when attempting to change speed a grinding noise is heard, it is best to stop the car completely and not persevere, but change the speed quietly with the car standing stationary. When this has been done, and it is brought absolutely home to the learner that the speed can be changed, then he must revert to the lower speed and begin all over again, until he can change each speed easily and quietly while the car is running; it is only a question of practice. The clutch-pedal must be pressed down firmly and decisively without haste or any violent force. There is another important factor in regard to changing speeds which must be considered, and that is, to change speed at the proper time in relation to the speed at which the car itself is travelling. The usual mistakes on the part of the novice in changing speed are:—

1. To change to a higher speed too soon.

2. After withdrawing the clutch, not changing speed soon enough, thus allowing the carriage to run too slowly to enable him to change, on to a higher speed.

3. Often in ascending hills he does not change to the next lower speed quickly enough. It is always well to remember that in going uphill the engine is best when kept at its maximum rate of speed; if it drops below this, change to a lower Lrcar at once. This is especially important if you are driving a powerful car, as the strain thrown on the clutch when driving on too high a gear will not improve 'that very important item of the car's anatomy.

A very good formula to follow in regard to changing speeds is to continue on the speed on which you are running until the engine cuts out or shows signs of extra vibration or noise, which will at once indicate to you that it is running faster than it ought, and that it is desirable to change on to the next speed. This will ensure there being a good run on the car, and that the next higher speed will take up the run and increase the pace.

In changing to a lower speed, it is always well to change in good time directly the car exhibits the slightest sign of flagging on the speed it is then running on, as one must remember that immediately the clutch is withdrawn on an upgrade the car starts slowing, and if one does not change quickly, it will not pull even on the next lower speed. The result of this will be that, instead of changing back to one speed, the driver will have to change down two speeds to keep the car running properly. It is therefore highly necessary, before trying long drives in a hilly country, that this point should be thoroughly mastered. The same remarks apply in ordinary driving. It is always well to keep within the power of the engine, and after having stopped or slowed down it is advisable to change back to a lower speed so as to ensure the engine plenty of power to start the car again.

Accelerator.—It would perhaps be as well here to explain the use of the third pedal referred to before as the 'accelerator pedal.' While not essential to the proper running of the car, it can be made of considerable use in driving.

The type of motor carriage we have described is fitted with an engine which governs out at approximately 750 to 800 revolutions a minute. If, however, the governor is held up—and this is what the accelerator pedal accomplishes—of course the engine speed is considerably increased and the speed of the car is increased accordingly; but though the accelerator pedal is beneficial in the hands of a careful and considerate driver, it can be abused to the damage of the engine and gear in the hands of a rough or careless driver.

To race the engine on any and every conceivable occasion is obviously improper; but it will be found that to accelerate a little when wishing to change (but before doing so), especially when going uphill, will assist very materially in accomplishing the change of speed successfully.

Overrunning the Engine.—We will suppose that you are running down a steep hill with the speed lever set in the third speed—with the left pedal down and the motor consequently disconnected—and this third speed gives, say, a rate of twenty miles an hour. The car, however, from its own momentum and the force of gravity, may be running at twenty-five miles an hour, and to let the clutch in then throws a very unfair strain on the engine. It must be remembered that the engine has to drive the car and not the car the engine, which if caused to rotate at a much greater speed than that for which it was constructed may result in a serious breakage. Therefore do not let the clutch in until the speed of the car is sufficiently reduced to give the engine some work to do when the pedal is lifted up.

Starting for a Drive.—There are many points which require to be thought over when starting for a drive, so as to make sure that everything is in order and that the necessary spare parts are carried. Although it seems a formidable list, it is curious how very quickly one gets used to running mentally over all these items, and after a time never forgetting anything.

The main points to be thought of are to make certain that the tanks are full of petrol. A good way of dealing with this matter is to fill up with petrol whenever there is a suitable opportunity, as this ensures the car always being ready to travel its maximum distance without any special preparation. It is then necessary to see that the water tanks are full, that your working and spare accumulators are fully charged, that all the lubricators and grease cups are absolutely full, and that some spare lubricating oil is carried. Also a number of spare parts should be taken, such as spare exhaust-valve and spring, spare inlet-valve complete, three spare sparking plugs, spare inner tubes and repair outfit. Besides these,

A large screw wrench.

Small pocket wrench.

Long screwdriver.

Small screwdriver.

Pair of cutting pliers.

Pair of gas pliers.

Two files, medium size.

Coil of copper and steel wire.

Oil-can with long nozzle.

Small cold chisel.

Supposing all then is ready, the next thing to do is to start the engine, and the points to be gone through are as follows:—

1. Turn on petrol.

2. Switch on ignition.

3. See that the lever to the commutator is retarded as far as possible. (This is done to make certain that no back-fire will occur.)

4. Turn on lubricator.

5. Start engine.

Before Starting the Engine.—One of the most important things to do before attempting to start the engine is to see that the speed lever is in the out-of-gear notch. The importance of this cannot be emphasised too much. We have seen a number of accidents of a more or less serious nature result from the neglect of this precaution. We remember particularly on one occasion a friend started up a car with the speed lever in the forward notch but with the side brakes on, thus holding out the cone. The vibration of the engine shook the brake lever out of its notch, in jumped the cone, and off jumped the car. As this took place on the edge of a very high cliff within a few yards from the brink, observers went through the agonising experience of seeing a trusty little car and an agitated driver struggling for supremacy the one to plunge over the edge into space and the other to prevent this catastrophe. Luckily the fly-wheel of the engine struck on a mound and stopped the car with the two front wheels over the edge of the cliff. Make it therefore a golden rule: never leave your car, whether the engine is running or not, without first putting the speed lever in the out-of-gear position and also putting the side brakes on.

It sometimes happens that, although all the operations set out above have been performed, the engine does not respond to the turning of the handle. Under these circumstances, it is well just to jump the float needle up and down once or twice, to make certain that a little petrol has gone into the carburetter. It may seem rather unnecessary to have to recapitulate all these minor points, but it has often occurred that even experienced drivers have tried for quite a long time to start their car without the electric current being turned on, and in some cases have started their car, and driven a few yards, when the engine has unaccountably stopped, and after some searching they have found that the petrol was not turned on.

The troubles in regard to the starting, &c. of the engine are dealt with in the chapter on the Petrol Motor.

Lubrication. Although perhaps this subject is hardly one which should be dealt with in this chapter, it is of such great importance to ensure the successful running of the car that it cannot be dwelt upon too much. Lubrication above all things spells life to the motor-car, and the lack of it must result sooner or later in disaster. Therefore see before starting for a drive that all the bearings of the car are properly lubricated, and also be sure during the drive that the lubricator to the engine is working satisfactorily.

After having been for a drive or having the engine running, the next thing to do is to go through another set of regular functions which should always take place before putting the car away. Turn off electric current, or if lamp ignition, blow out lamps, and after a few minutes turn off petrol to the lamps; turn off main petrol to carburetter, turn off lubricators, and then have the engine turned smartly by hand and a little paraffin pumped into the cylinders from the pump provided for this purpose. This is to ensure that the piston rings shall not become gummy or sticky, and it is a great point in assisting the engine to start easily next time.

Driving Backwards.—After having conquered all the initial difficulties in regard to steering, changing speed, application of brakes, &c., it would be well for the novice to start learning to steer and drive the car with the speed lever in the reverse.

There are comparatively few men who can drive backwards safely and well, but the importance of being able to do this must be very apparent. When driving in traffic it is a very common thing for the vehicle in front to back, and in this event it must be the work of a moment to slip the speed lever into the reverse notch and run back out of danger. To turn in a narrow road where the reverse is required also calls for some knowledge of handling the car when running backwards, and in the event of the car running backwards when ascending a steep hill the vital importance of being able to steer it safely is obvious. Skill in this direction has great advantages. We recall an instance of an automobilist who, having had the misfortune to break the forward bevel driving wheel on his car, slipped in the reverse and drove into London some twenty miles steering the car backwards. He complained, however, of having a stiff neck for some days afterwards.

The novice should practise on some quiet wide country road until he attains sufficient proficiency to drive the car backwards at the rate of at least eight or nine miles an hour.

Test your Brakes.—Every wise chauffeur takes the precaution of testing his brakes immediately he starts driving. During a stop something may happen to the brakes so as to make them quite ineffective, or a portion of the brake mechanism may have broken. The driver who perhaps before luncheon has ascertained that his brakes are acting perfectly, after luncheon may start off in the same supposition, and perhaps not discover his error until, relying on his pedal brake to stop him in traffic, he finds that it has no effect, with the result that he probably goes through the back of a brougham.

The Sprag.—This is an adjunct fitted to most cars. In the early stages of driving, it is as well always to leave this down when ascending steep hills, so that in the event of the novice missing his change of speed, or if through any other cause the car tried to run backwards, it would be arrested in its early movement and damage obviated.

It should be borne in mind, however, that the sprag should be dropped before the car actually starts to run backwards; otherwise the momentum on the car may induce it to jump the sprag to the danger of the passengers and the great annoyance of the chauffeur, who finds that before being able to proceed he will have either to detach the sprag or cut it away. We remember seeing the owner of a large motor carriage in this predicament. After taking the precaution of having a solid sprag fitted, he spent some hours beneath his

HOW TO TAKE A CORNER

 

car in an endeavour to cut through a solid inch and a half of iron with a very blunt hack saw.

Immediately the necessity for the use of the sprag has disappeared, it is as well to pull it up at once by the cord.

Going round Corners.—Always keep to your right side, remembering that in all probability you will find some other vehicle coming towards you from the opposite direction. It will generally be found that as the road slopes towards the gutter, the outside wheels of the carriage will be higher than the inside. This not only helps one round the curve, but at the same time lessens the risk of upsetting if the speed was higher than should have been attempted for such a curve. The novice in hugging the corner would only be following the exact practice of the railway companies in banking the outside rail up higher than the inside on rounding curves, but must keep a good look-out ahead, and in the event of not being able to see round the curve should not drive at a greater speed than that at which the car can be pulled up immediately, should occasion require it.

Descending Steep Hills.—When travelling down steep hills it is very easy to be deceived, as the nature of the district may make the gradients look very much less than they really are. A very striking example of this occurred in the Thousand Miles Trial of the Automobile Club, when the Hon. C. S. Rolls, in driving from the 'Cat and Fiddle,' was evidently so deceived by both the gradient and the corner that he actually threw his mechanic off the car, owing to the vehicle travelling at much higher rate than was allowed for, and the gradient keeping the car running at a great speed right up to the corner. The present writer himself, who was just behind Mr. Rolls at the moment, to a certain extent met with the same difficulty. It is always desirable, even when great experience is reached, to travel with the utmost caution under strange surroundings and to keep the car well in hand.

Using the Brakes.—A very good rule to follow is that under ordinary circumstances the brakes should not be used with such violence as to cause the wheels to skid, or to occasion a jar to those driving in the carriage. If this is carefully observed the vehicle will last much longer.

We are aware that it is the habit of some drivers to do what is known as 'drive on their brakes'—that is to say, rush up to an obstacle at full speed and then rely upon their brakes to prevent them from dashing into it. However brilliant it may appear to the uninitiated, the practice cannot be too strongly condemned; for not only does an exhibition of this sort try the nerves of the passengers on the car—however seasoned they may be—but it also produces a bad impression on the public, who, not appreciating the control the driver has over his vehicle, marvels at his apparently narrow escape. This sort of thing comes under the heading of inconsiderate driving, and is not only unnecessary but at the same time bad form. The danger of the practice is also very great. It will be remembered that a very serious accident occurred some time ago on a hill near Harrow through this very cause. The unfortunate driver, who was killed, was one who was well known to rely on his brakes to an extraordinary extent, driving full speed up to his stopping point and then applying the brakes with very full force and stopping in the shortest possible space of time. In the early days of the sport this was thought by some to be a sign of good and skilful driving, but experience has taught us that the best driver is the careful driver who takes no unnecessary risks.

The sudden application of the brakes and the consequent locking of the wheels is to be commended from a pneumatic tyre manufacturer's point of view, but from no other.

Dangers of the Road.—Some of the greatest dangers to be met with on the road arise from other people, not because they are there, but because of their indecision; and in the forefront must be put people alighting from tramcars, or children holding on to the backs of carts and trams. They suddenly hear the motor approaching, and although their safest plan is to remain where they are, they make wild dives in any and every direction, with the result that, unless one has the car completely under control and ready to stop at a moment's notice, a bad accident may happen. It is a good rule when meeting with undecided wayfarers to make up one's mind the way one wants to go and continue in that direction; at the same time keep your brakes well in hand, so that if necessary you can pull up dead and avoid striking them.

Lady cyclists are or used to be a great danger, for when a motor was heard approaching them from behind, they usually fell off their bicycles, apparently in terror; but this distressing spectacle is now comparatively seldom seen.

A swerving horse which swings round at the last moment is another danger to be guarded against, and on approaching any horse it is always well to assume—as is too often the case—that it is not under the control of the person driving it; either he is intent on looking at the motor, or very likely he cannot drive. It is advisable to slow down to the pace at which the car can be pulled up immediately a horse shows signs of wanting to monopolise the whole of the road. This danger is very much increased if the horse is attached to a cart with a long piece of timber projecting at the back, as a very small movement of the animal may completely block the road. One or two very bad accidents have occurred thus.

In driving at high speeds avoid trying to look behind. A Belgian nobleman was lately killed owing to taking a glance behind him when driving a racing car. He apparently deflected his steering wheel a little, with the consequence that before he turned his head again the car had dashed into the bank by the roadside. The barbaric system of carrying small water drains in shallow trenches (known in France as caniveaux) across the surface of the road has been the cause of many accidents. They may be found in many French villages and on some English roads. They are difficult to detect, but a good driver should always have an eye for the road and be prepared to slow down to a walking speed in passing over these trenches. The same remarks apply to badly made level crossings of railways, Some of these are disgracefully constructed. That at Coinbrook, on the Bath road, is an example of how they should be designed: that at Mortlake station of how they should not. Where the road crosses small streams the bridge is sometimes made in the shape of a sudden hump (the French call them donkeys' backs) instead of a gradual and nicely curved ascent and descent. These must not be attempted at high speeds. To drive fast over a trench, a bad railway crossing, or a bad hump, may result in broken springs, bent axles, and strained frames. The novice should bear in mind that cars are not designed for steeplechasing, and a broken horn of the front springs leads to the displacement of the steering gear, and possibly a sudden swoop across the road, into a wall, a ditch or—Eternity.

Side-slip.—We now come to another danger or difficulty, and that is side-slip the bugbear of the expert as well as of the novice. Under certain conditions all roads in towns become exceedingly greasy and slippery to a rubber tyre, so much so that if the brakes are applied the carriage, instead of stopping, merely travels on with the wheels locked, and on greasy asphalte will go almost as far in this fashion as with the wheels revolving. Drivers are, however, never likely to meet with accidents from side-slip if they will only drive cautiously. In town, if one keeps in the ordinary line of traffic, and proceeds at the same pace as the other vehicles, the result should be perfect safety, for one can always stop as quickly as the ordinary 'bus in London, even under the worst conditions. There is simply no royal road to get over this difficulty except driving cautiously, and driving at such a speed that it is only necessary to apply the brake in a very gentle form. If one drives at greater speed than this, accidents are bound to happen, and no one but the driver is to blame.

In regard to the different types of greasy roads, asphalte is probably the worst, though greasy wood, and chalk or oolite road, are almost as bad. Perhaps the chalk road is the most dangerous, as one comes upon it out in the country when pos-

A SIDE-SLIP

 

sibly travelling at a high rate of speed. Greasy tram lines arc also exceedingly bad, but as the car should be travelling slowly when these are encountered, accidents ought not to happen if proper care be used.

In passing over tram-lines they should be taken at a good angle, for if the crossing be cut too fine the wheels may drop into the lines and a slip result. Greasy macadam is bad if high speeds are attempted, but up to ten or twelve miles an hour there is seldom any difficulty in 'negotiating' it. Ice is the worst of all, but this condition occurs very seldom, and of course no attempt should be made to travel at any great speed over it. An account, however, of a drive under these circumstances is given by Mr. Mayhew in a recent issue of the Automobile Club's 'Notes and Notices,' and being of interest it is quoted:—

Mr. Mark Mayhew met with some exciting experiences on December 28th, when driving his twenty horse-power Panhard. After descending Aston Hill, and when within five miles of Oxford, he struck a strip of road which was solid ice, but which, owing to the thaw that had started, was running with water. He says—

Awful side-slip, hit side of road left, right, left, after which went straight again. One mile from Witney he noticed a sharp descent with a similarly treacherous surface. He had not time to pull up the car, so put the brakes on at the top of the hill, which stopped the driving wheels dead, while the car calmly glissaded to the bottom. When he got to the bottom he put in the clutch on the second speed, and essayed to run up the other side, but as soon as the momentum had fallen, the driving wheels began to slip, then the first speed was dropped in, but the car eventually stopped with the wheels revolving on the ice. Then, with the power still on, it slowly slid to the bottom of the valley backward. However, by getting some strips of sacking which he tied round the tyres, the summit was gained. It is suggested that the partial deflation of the back tyres might have helped Mr. Mayhew. Of course, the conditions were so exceptional that no provision is usually made for them. If they were common, it would certainly be necessary to have a sand box; in fact, an adaptation of the railway steam sand blast, but worked from the exhaust, would be necessary!

When driving on greasy roads it is always well to keep as far away as possible from any vehicle in front, whether it be a motor-car, a horse-drawn vehicle, or a cycle, as this allows plenty of time to pull up slowly and gradually.

In regard to the various accidents which may happen to the car itself through outside causes, one thing to be remembered is that the fly-wheel or front axle of the car is probably not more than seven or eight inches above the ground; therefore if very rutty roads are being used, it is well to direct the wheels out of the cart ruts and keep one rut in the centre of the vehicle. It is also well to keep a good look-out when entering park gates or stable yards where high centre stones are often placed, for if anything is struck by the fly-wheel it is almost certain to break or bend the crank-shaft of the engine, and a costly repair is necessitated.

A Punctured Tyre.—There is another little difficulty in regard to steering, and that is if a front-wheel tyre bursts or punctures, that side of the car is immediately somewhat lower, and owing to the tyre being flat, it exerts a severe retarding tendency to that side of the vehicle, with the result that if the right-hand tyre punctures, it tries hard to run to the right. This must be resisted and the car kept firmly on its course, the brakes being applied gently but firmly, and the car pulled up as quickly as possible without a sudden jerk. To give one some idea in an exaggerated form of the power exerted by a deflated tyre we will give a personal experience. When travelling on a big racing carriage over seventy miles per hour, the front tyre was cut by a broken piece of bottle, and in a second the tyre burst. The whole tyre and tube were torn off the wheel by the centrifugal force exercised and the car was running on the iron rim. In holding the steering straight against this tremendous pull, the steering-wheel steel shaft was twisted a quarter of a turn. Of course, if the car had been allowed to deflect for one moment from a straight line at this speed, a most frightful accident would have followed.

Night-driving.—When driving at night one should never travel at a speed greater than that which affords time to pull up after seeing any object clearly by the light of your lamps. Of course if two acetylene lamps are used one can travel up to twenty-five miles an hour in perfect safety, the road being sufficiently illuminated to give plenty of time to stop; but if ordinary oil or candle lamps are used, eight or ten miles is the limit of safety. In very foggy weather it is best to turn one lamp sideways so as to indicate the side of the road. The offside lamp pointing forward should be covered with a handkerchief, to diffuse the light and cause less refraction from the fog in front.

One of the most difficult things to see on the road at night are sheep, as they make little noise when going along slowly, and seem to blend with the colour of the path. The writer remembers some years ago running into a flock of sheep from this cause when travelling late at night on a carriage having only candle lamps. The consequent smash and the amount of attendant repair bill are still engraven on his mind.

It must also be remembered that many people walking, seeing the lights of the car, assume that you see them as well as they see you. Again, it is almost impossible to believe, until one has had actual experience, how invisible some large objects are which may be on the road in front of you at night, and which it is impossible to see until one is within a few yards of them. In summer, probably owing to the roads being usually white, the light from one's lamp is much more effective than in winter. A very dark night is actually better for driving than a moonlight night with the moon partly obscured by clouds.

In conclusion, it is well to remember that under all circumstances a fixed habit of careful driving should be practised. Reckless driving has no utility, and must result in a serious accident sooner or later. The difference in the time taken by a careful driver and by a reckless driver in a day's journey is infinitesimal. To obtain this small gain, however, the reckless driver has probably incurred a tremendous number of risks all totally unnecessary, and caused considerable annoyance to everyone else on the road.

Probably the chief offenders in this respect are the paid mécaniciens or drivers for companies or private owners. Having no responsibility, no care, no consequences to face—beyond the possible loss of the weekly wage—infinite damage can be done by a man of this type dashing through villages and crowded thoroughfares. Therefore impress the fact on your mechanic that your car is to be driven as considerately when you are off as when you are on it, and if your instructions are not carried out, cure the complaint by dismissing the man

Grievances in regard to the speed of motor-cars would have had no ground if every driver took upon himself the obligation of gentlemanly conduct on the road, acknowledging that the highway is public and that a large number of other persons have equal rights to its use. Therefore slacken your speed in any and every place where you think that some other user of the highway may be inconvenienced by your passage.