34.5. Labials: p, ph, b, bh, m. These are exactly the equivalents of the English p, b, m.
35.B. Semivowels: y, r, l, v. 1. The palatal semivowel y stands in the closest relationship with the vowel i (short or long): the two exchange with one another in cases innumerable. Very probably the Sanskrit y had everywhere more of an i-character than our y.
36.2. The r is clearly a lingual sound. It thus resembles the English smooth r, and like this seems to have been untrilled.
37.3. The l is a sound of dental position, quite as in English.
38.4. The labial v is pronounced as English or French v by the modern Hindus—except when preceded by a consonant (except r) in the same syllable, when it sounds like English w; and European scholars follow the same practice (with or without the same exception). But strictly the v stands related to an u-vowel precisely as y to an i-vowel: that is, it is a w-sound in the English sense, or perhaps more like the ou in French oui. The rules of Sanskrit euphony affecting this sound, and the name "semivowel", have no application except to such a w-sound: a v-sound (German w) is no semivowel, but a spirant, like the English th- sounds and f.
39.C. Sibilants: ç, ṣ, s. 1. The s is of plain character: a dental, and exactly like the English s (as in lesson—never as in ease).
40.2. The ṣ is the sibilant pronounced in the lingual position. It is, therefore, a kind of sh-sound, and by Europeans is pronounced as ordinary English sh, no attempt being made to give it its proper lingual quality.
41.3. The ç is by all native authorities described as palatal. It is the usual sh-sound of English, though the Hindus are said
