On matters of religion, for example, it has been believed that preachers and theologians have formulated the doctrines of theology; and that, as time goes on and theological doctrines change, the changes have been made mostly by the religious teachers as a result of careful investigation. But it is probable that the feelings of the people, as determined in good part by consideration on subjects of politics, of morals, of business, etc., have so modified the opinions expressed by the preachers themselves, and have so reacted upon the feelings of the theological leaders, that our present dogmas, as believed by the public, are rather the result of conflicts of pew versus pulpit than of the direct action of the pulpit over the pew. Most of us have seen and felt the change in the religious opinions of certain individuals, coming largely from feelings regarding personal friends or relatives. We may note also how powerful was the effect of the protestant revolution of the sixteenth century in moulding political beliefs and opinions.
Of course this process of shaping public opinion differs materially in different countries. In certain countries of Europe, Germany for example, a comparatively few persons shape the thought of the people on many political questions. In that country the opinion of the emperor is almost directly accepted as conclusive in many of the court circles. Earlier, Prince Bismarck's views had a like influence. Very intelligent men when questioned regarding public matters were ready to reply: "I do not know. If it is best, Bismarck will attend to it." Among the working classes the opinions of the socialistic leaders are often taken as authoritative and followed directly; and so on through the different political parties, a comparatively few leaders not merely suggest the beginning of public opinion, as in this country in some cases, but they themselves by giving direct expression to their views almost absolutely control it. On general questions of economic policy the professors in the universities, who are supposed to be special authorities on those questions, have far more influence than do men in similar positions in this country. The important sanitary reforms in the city of Berlin were
