ophy of uncultured peoples has been exploited against Christian (theistic belief) on the unwarranted ground that Christianity is but a refinement, through a long process of evolution, of a crude primitive religion originating in ghost-worship. Among those who have distinguished themselves in this branch of apologetics are Döllinger, whose "Heidenthum und Judenthum" (1857), tr. "Gentile and Jew in the Court of the Temple" (London, 1865–67), is a mine of information on the comparative merits of revealed religion and the paganism of the Roman world; Abbé de Broglie, author of the suggestive volume, "Problèmes et conclusions de l'histoire des religions" (Paris, 1886); Hardwick, Christ and other Masters" (London, 1875). Another factor in the growth of apologetics during the last century was the rise of numerous systems of philosophy that, in the teaching of such men as Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, Comte, and Spencer, were openly or covertly in opposition to Christian belief. To counteract these systems, Pope Leo XIII revived throughout the Catholic world the teaching of Thomistic philosophy. The many works written to vindicate Christian Theism against Pantheism, Materialism, Positivism, and Evolutionary Monism have been of great service to apologetics. Not all these philosophic apologies, indeed, are scholastic. They represent several modern schools of thought. France has furnished a number of able apologetic thinkers who lay chief stress on the subjective element in man, who point to the needs and aspirations of the soul, and to the corresponding fitness of Christianity, and of Christianity alone, to satisfy them. This line of thought has been worked out in various ways by the lately deceased Ollé-Laprune, author of "La certitude morale" (Paris, 1880), and "Le prix de la vie" (Paris, 1892); by Fonsegrive, "Le catholicisme et la vie de l'esprit" (Paris, 1899); and, in "L'action" (Paris, 1893), by Blondel, the founder of the so-called "Immanence School" the principles of which are embodied in the spiritual writings of Father Tyrrell, "Lex Orandi" (London, 1903), "Lex Credendi" (London, 1906). The continued opposition between Catholicism and Protestantism in the last century resulted in the production of a number of noteworthy apologetic writings: Möhler, "Symbolism", published in Germany in 1832, which has gone through many editions in English; Balmes, "Protestantism and Catholicity Compared in their Effects on the Civilization of Europe", a Spanish work published in English in 1840 (Baltimore); the works of the three illustrious English cardinals, Wiseman, Newman, and Manning, most of whose writings have a bearing on apologetics.
It is out of all these varied and extensive studies that apologetics has taken form. The vastness of the field makes it extremely difficult for any one writer to do it full justice. In fact a complete, comprehensive apology of uniform excellence still remains to be written.
In addition to the works already mentioned, the more general treatises on apologetics are as follows:
Catholic Works.—Schanz, A Christian Apology (New York, 1891) 3 vols. An improved edition of the original, Apologie des Christentums, was published in Freiburg (1895) and an augmented edition was in preparation in 1906. Picard, Christianity or Agnosticism?, tr. from the French by Macleod (London, 1899); Devivier, Christian Apologetics, edited and augmented by Sasia (San José, 1903) 2 vols.; ed. in one vol. by the Most Rev. S. G. Messmer, D.D. (New York, 1903); Frayssinous, A Defence of Christianity, tr. from the French by Jones (London, 1836); Hettinger, Natural Religion (New York, 1890); Revealed Religion (New York, 1895), both being adaptations by H. S. Bowden of Hettinger's German Apologie des Christentums (Freiburg, 1895–98) 5 vols.; Hettinger, Fundamental-Theologie (Freiburg, 1888); Gutberlet, Lehrbuch der Apologetik (Münster, 1895) 3 vols.; Schell, Apologie des Christentums (Paderborn, 1902–5) 2 vols.; Weiss, Apologie des Christentums vom Standpunkte der Sitte und Kultur (Freiburg, 1888-9), 5 vols., French tr. Apologie du christianisme au point de vue des m urs et de la civilisation (Paris, 1894); Bougaud, Le christianisme et les temps présents (Paris, 1891) 5 vols.; Labeyrie, La science de la foi (La Chapelle-Montligeon, 1903); Egger, Encheiridion Theologi Dogmatic Generalis (Brixen, 1893); Ottiger, Theologia Fundamentalis (Freiburg, 1897); Tanquery, Synopsis Theologi Fundamentalis (New York, 1896). Periodicals valuable for apologetic study are: The American Catholic Quarterly; American Ecclesiastical Review; New York Review; Catholic World; Dublin Review; Irish Ecclesiastical Record; Irish Theological Quarterly; Month; Tablet; Revue Apologétique (Brussels); Revue pratique apoloétique (Paris); Revue des questions scientifiques; Mus on; La science catholique; Annales de philosophie chrétienne; Etudes religieuses; Revue Thomiste, Revue du clergé français; Revue d'histoire et de littérature religieuse; Revue biblique; Theologische Quartalschrift (Tübingen); Stimmen aus Maria-Laach.
Protestant Works.—Bruce, Apologetics (New York, 1892); Fisher, The Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief (New York, 1902); Fairbairn, The Philosophy of the Christian Religion (New York, 1902); Mair, Studies in the Christian Evidences (Edinburgh, 1894); Luthardt, The Fundamental Truths of Christianity (Edinburgh, 1882); Schultz, Outlines of Christian Apologetics (New York, 1905); Row, Christian Evidences Viewed in Relation to Modern Thought (London, 1888); Idem, A Manual of Christian Evidences (New York, 1896); Illingworth, Reason and Revelation (New York, 1903). Many excellent apologetic treatises are to be found in the long series of Bampton Lectures, also in the Gifford, Hulsean, Baird, and Croal Lectures.
Apolysis (Gr., ἀπόλυσις, dismissal), the dismissal blessing said by the Greek priest at the end of the Mass, Matins, or Vespers. It corresponds fairly well to the Latin Ite, Missa est, and is in use in the Greek Church since the days of St. Athanasius. At the end of the Mass the priest turns to the people and says, if it be Sunday, "He that rose again from the dead, Christ our true God, at the intercession of His immaculate and all-blameless holy Mother, by the power of the precious and life-giving cross, by the protection of the bodiless powers (i.e. angels) of Heaven, at the supplications of the glorious prophet John the Forerunner and Baptist, the holy, glorious, and all-famous Apostles, the holy, glorious, and victorious martyrs (and then he mentions the other saints), have mercy on us and save us; for He is good and loveth man". If the Mass be on a Week day the apolysis omits the opening words of the blessing, "He that rose again from the dead", as those particular words are used to commemorate Sunday as being the day of the Resurrection; There is also a shorter form in use after different parts of the Divine Office, e. g. Prime, Sext, None, etc.
Pétridès in Dict. d'arch. chrét., I. 2601; Clugnet, Dict. des noms liturgiques, 18.
Apolytikion (άπολυτίκιον), a dismissal prayer or hymn said or sung at the end of the Greek Mass and at other times during Matins and Vespers; It was originally sung at the end of Vespers, and is very much like the Roman collect or post-communion, inasmuch as it changes for each feast-day of the year and commemorates the subject of the feast. The apolytikion of Christmas reads as follows: "Thy Nativity, O Christ, hath arisen on the world as the light of knowledge; for at it those who worshipped stars were taught by a star to adore Thee, O Sun of Righteousness, and to know Thee, O Orient from on high; Glory to Thee, O Lord". The one for the feast of the Annunciation is: "To-day is the crowning of our salvation and the manifestation of the Mystery which is from eternity; the Son of God becometh the Son of the Virgin, and Gabriel announceth the glad tidings of grace: wherefore let us cry out with him to the Mother of God; Hail, full of grace, the Lord is with thee!"
Pétridès in Dict. d'arch. chrét., I, 2602; Pitra, Hymnographie de l'église grecque, 42; Robertson, Divine Liturgies (London, 1894), 432-451.
Apophthegmata Patrum (ἀπό, from; φθέγγομαι, to cry out; pater, father), sayings of the Fathers of the Desert. Various collections exist of aphorisms and anecdotes illustrative of the spiritual life, of ascetic and monastic principle, and of Christian
