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grown by magical ceremonies. Against this degenera-
tion the Vedanta makes a vigorous stand and attempts
to bring the Indian mind back to earlier simplicity
and purity. Buddhism, which at first disregarded
magic, fell a prey to the universal contagion, espe-
cially in China and Tibet.
The Aryans of Europe, Greeks, Romans, Teutons, Celts, were never so deeply infected as the Asiatics. The Romans were too self-reliant and practical to be terrified by magic. Their practice of divination and auguries seems to have been borrowed from the Etrus- cans and the Marsi; the latter were considered experts in magic even during the empire (Verg., "Ma.", VII, 750, sqq.; PUny, VII, ii; XXI, xiii). The Dii Aurunci, to avert calamities, used magical power, but they were not native Roman deities. The Romans were conscious of their common sense in these matters and felt themselves superior to the Greeks. In the first century of our era Oriental magic invaded the Roman Empire. Pliny in his "Natural History " (77 A. D.) in the opening chapters of Bk. XXX, gives the most important extant discussion on magic by any ancient writer, only to brand all magic as imposture. None the less his book is a storehouse of magic recipes, e. g.: "Wear as an amulet the carcass of a frog minus the claws and wrapped in a piece of russet-coloured cloth and it will cure fever" (Bk. XXXII, xxxviii). Such advice argues at least a belief in medicinal magic. But among the Romans it may be said that magic was condemned in every age by many of the best spirits of their day: Tacitus, Favorinus, Sextus Empiricus, and Cicero who even demurred against divination. Officially by many laws of the empire against "malefici" and "mathematici" magic was forbidden under Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, and even Caracalla; unofficially, however, even the em- perors sometimes dabbled in magic. Nero is said to have studied it; but failing to work miracles, he aban- doned it in disgust. Soon after the magicians found an imperial supporter in Otho, and tolerance under Vespasian, Hadrian, and M. Aurelius, and even finan- cial aid under Alexander Scverus.
The Greeks regarded Thessaly and Thrace as the countries especially addicted to magic. The goddess Hecate, who was thought to preside over magical functions, was originally a foreign deity and was probably introduced into Greek mythology by Hesiod. She is not mentioned in the Iliad or Odyssey though magic was rife in Homeric times. The great mythical sorceress of the Odyssey is Circe, famous for the well- known trick of changing men into beasts (Od., X-XII). In later times the foremost magician was Medea, priestess of Hecate; but the gruesome tales told of her express the Greek horror for, as well as behef in, black magic. Curse formula? or magic spells against the lives of one's enemies seem to have found no mightier name than Hermes Chthonios. As earth-god he was a manifestation of the world-soul and controlled nature's powers. In Egypt he was identified vrith Thoth, the god of hidden wisdom, became the keeper of magic secrets and gave his name to Trismcgistic lit- erature. Greece, moreover, welcomed and honoured foreign magicians. Apuleius, by education an Athe- nian, in his "Golden Ass" (c. 150 a. d.), satirized the frauds of contemporary wonder-workers but praised the genuine 7nagi from Persia. When accused of magic, he defended himself in his "Apology" which shows clearly the public attitude towards magic in his day. He quoted Plato and Aristotle who gave cre- dence to true magic. St. Hippolytus of Rome (A Refutation of All Heresies, Bk. IV) gives a sketch of the \vizardry practised in the Greek-speaking world.
Teutons and Celts also had their magic, though less is known of it. The magical element in the First Edda and in the Beowulf is simple and closely con- nected with nature phenomena. Woden (Wodan) who invented the runes, was the god for healing and
good charms, Loki was a malignant spirit who har-
assed mankind and with the witch Thock caused the
death of Baldur (Balder). The magic of the mistletoe
seems to be an heirloom from earliest Teutonic times.
The magic of the Celts seems to have been in the hands
of the druids, who, though perhaps mainly diviners,
appear also as magicians in Celtic heroic literature.
As they wrote nothing, httle is known of their magical
lore. For modern magic amongst uncivilized races con-
sult especially Skeat's "Malay Magic" (London, 1900).
Magic as a practice finds no place in Christianity, though the belief in the reality of magical powers has been held by Christians and individual Christians have been given to the practice. Two main reasons account for the belief: first, ignorance of physical laws. When the boundary between the physically possible and impossible was uncertain, some individuals were supposed to have gained almost limitless control over nature. Their souls were attuned to the symphony of the universe; they knew the mystery of numbers and in consequence their powers exceeded the common understanding. This, however, was natural magic. But, secondly, belief in the frequency of diabolical in- terference with the forces of nature led easily to belief in real magic. The early Christians were emphati- cally warned against the practice of it in the " Didache" (v, 1) and the letter of Barnabas (xx, 1). In fact it was condemned as a heinous crime. The danger, how- ever, came not only from the pagan world but also from the pseudo-Christian Gnostics. Although Si- mon Magus and Elymas, that "child of the devil", (Acts, xiii, 6 sqq.) served as deterrent examples for all Christians, it took centuries to eradicate the propen- sity to magic. St. Gregory the Great, St. Augustine, St. Chrysostom, and St. Ephraem inveighed against it. A more rational view of religion and nature had hardly gained ground, when the Germanic nations entered the Church and brought with them the inclination for magic inherited from centuries of pa- ganism. No wonder that during the Middle Ages wizardry was secretly practised in many places notwithstanding innumerable decrees of the Church on the subject. Belief in the frequency of magic finally led to stringent measures taken against witch- craft (q. v.).
Catholic theology defines magic as the art of per- forming actions beyond the power of man with the aid of powers other than the Divine, and condemns it and any attempt at it as a grievous sin against the virtue of religion, because all magical performances, if undertaken seriously, are based on the expectation of interference by demons or lost souls. Even if under- taken out of curiosity the performance of a magical ceremony is sinful as it either proves a lack of faith or is ayain superstition. The Catholic Church admits in principle the possibility of interference in the course of nature by spirits other than God, whether good or evil, but never without God's permission. As to the frequency of such interference especially by malignant agencies at the request of man, she observes the utmost reserve.
R. Campbell Thompson, Semitic Magic (London, 1908); Thorndyke, The Place of Magic in the intellectual history of Eu- rope in Stud. Hist, Econom. of Columbia University, XXIV (New York. 1905) ; Budge, Egyptian Magic (London, 1899) ; Schebman, Griechische Zauberpapyri (Leipzig, 1909) ; Kiesewetter, Gesch. des neuren Okkultismus (Leipzig, 1891) ; Wiedemann, Magic und Znuberei im alien Egypten (Leipzig, 1905) ; Lang, Magic and Re- ligion (London, 1910) ; Habert, La religion des peuples nan civili- ses (Paris, 1907) ; Idem, La Magie (Paris, 1908) ; Abt, Die Apologie des Apulejics u. d, antikc Zauberei (1908); Weinel. Die Wirkung des Geistes . . . bis auf IrerUtus (Freiburg, 1899); Du Prel, Magie als Naturwissenschaft (2 vols., 1899); Mathers, The Book of Sacred Magic (1458), reprinted (London, 1898); Fraser, The Golden Bough: a Study in Magic and Beligion (3 vols., Lon- don, 19C)0). This last-mentioned work is indeed a storehouse of curious information, but is to be used with the utmost caution, as it is vitiated by the author's prejudices. Readers are warned against the following works, winch are either books on conjuring or productions of the Rationalist Press AoENcr; Conybeare, Mifth, Magic and Morals; Evans, The Old and New Magic; A. Thompson, Magic and Mystery. J. p. AbENDZBN.
