POLAND
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POLAND
cated classes in general throughout the whole country
were either Poles or thoroughly Polonized. The total
population was generally given as nine millions. The
Ruthenians inhabited the eastern (White and Red
Russia), and the south-eastern pro\nnces (Red Russia
and the Ukraine). The Lithuanians formed the bulk
of the population in Samland and the waiTN'odeships of
Wilna and Troki. A political distinction was made
between "Crown Poland" and Lithuania. These two
divisions, which united after 1509, differed more par-
ticularly in that each country had its own officials.
After 1569, also, the designation "Republic of Po-
land" became customary to denote not any definite
pohty, but a league of states (Lithuania and Crown
Poland). Crown Poland was called a kingdom;
Lithuania, a grand-duchy. In 1772, 1793, and 1795
the territorj- of Poland was di\'ided among the three
adjoining states: Lithuania and Little Russia were
given to Russia; the purely Polish territories, to
Prussia and Austria. The new boundary between
these states was formed by the Pilica and the Bug.
Thus Russia received 8500 square miles and 6,500,000
inhabitants; Prussia, 27(K) square miles and 3,(XX),000
inhabitants; Austria, 2100 square miles and 4,275,000
inhabitants.
Napoleon took from Prussia the Polish territories annexed in 1793 and 1795 and out of them formed what he called the Duchy of Warsaw. New territorial changes were effected by the Congress of Vienna: Prussia received a part of the Duchy of Warsaw as the Grand duclij- of Posen; Russia received the rest of the Duchy of Warsaw as a separate Kingdom of Poland (Congress Poland) ; Austria retained the terri- tories previously acquired, under the name of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. Galicia now has a population of more than seven millions, of whom somewhat less than four millions are Poles, and 3,074,000, Ruthenians. Grouped according to reli- gion there are 3,350,000 Catholics of the Latin Rite, 3,104,000 Greek Uniats, and 811,000 Jews.
The San, a tributary of the Vistula, di\'ides Galicia into an eastern and western part. The latter is occu- pied by the Poles, the former by the Ruthenians, though there are also many Poles. For administrative purposes Galicia is di\dded into seventj'-nine dis- tricts. The intellectual centre of the country is Cracow (1.50,000 inhabitants), but the actual capital is Lemberg (250,000 inhabitants). There are two universities, one at Cracow and one at Lemberg, one polj'technic institute at Lemberg, and one commercial academy in each of these two cities. In the Polish provinces belonging to Prussia there are approx- imately four million Poles. In Silesia they constitute two-thirds of the population; they are also found on the Baltic and in the pro\'inces of East and West Prussia, being most numerous (more than 1,500,000) in the Grand duchy of Posen. The capital, Posen, numbers about 150,000 inhabitants. Among the Poles the Catholic religion predominates. The Poles under Russian rule are found chiefly in Congress Poland; also, in small numbers, in Lithuania, Volhy- nia, Podolia, and the L'kraine. The total probably amounts to nine millions. The capital of Russian Poland is Warsaw, with 800,000 inhabitants. The Greek Uniat Bishopric of Chclm (Kholm), situated within the boundaries of the Kingdom of Poland, w.as compelled by force to accept the schism in 1875; how- ever, since 1905, a large majority of the former Uniats have returned to the Catholic Church.
II. Political History. — .\t the period when the authentic history of Poland begins, the Germans had already become the most powerful nation of Europe, and their kings sought to extend their dominion to the Slavic tribes beyond the Elbe. The latter were very soon partly exterminated, partly subjugated. The eastern boundary of Germany was ad\;ui<ed as far as the Oder; beyond this was Polish territory.
But the German armies did not halt there; in the
neighbourhood of where Frankfort now stands they
crossed the Oder and attacked the Polish strongholds.
Mieszko, the Polish ruler of Posen (9(32-92), acknowl-
edged the German Emperor as his lord paramount,
promising to pay a yearly tribute, and upon demand
to aid him with an armed force. In 963 Mieszko
bound himself and his people to embrace Christianity.
Cliristian missionaries were at once sent to Poland;
the first bishopric was that of Posen, which was placed
under the supervision of the German archbishop at
Magdeburg. This was the first contact of the Poles
with EuroiJean civilization. From Germany and
Bohemia numerous missionaries entered the country
to baptize the peojile, while from all the Western
countries came immigrants and monks, and convents
began to be built. The spread of Christianity was
greatly furthered by the two wives of Prince Mieszko:
first, Dabrowska, a sister of the King of Bohemia,
and then Oda, formerly a nun whom Mieszko had
married after the death of Dabrowska. Prince
Mieszko considered himself a vassal of the pope, and
as such paid him tribute. From tliis time on, the
Church contributes so much to the national develop-
ment that it will be impossible to trace inteUigently
the political history of Poland without at the same
time following its ecclesiastical development.
Poland had hardly begun to play a part in history when it acquired extraordinary power. This was in the reign of the famous Boleslaw Chrobry (992-1025), the eldest son of the first Polish ruler. His dominions included all the lands from the Baltic to the country beyond the Carpathiaas, and from the River Oder to the proWnees beyond the Vistula. He had at his command, ready for instant service, a well-equipped army of 20,000 men. In spite of his great power, Boleslaw continued to pay the customary tribute to Germany. By his discreet diplomacy he was success- ful in obtaining the consent of the pope, as well as of the German emperor, to the erection of an archiepis- copal see at Gnesen, and thus the Polish Church was relieved of its dependence upon German archbishops. To emphasize Poland's independence of Germany, Boleslaw assumed the title of king, being crowned by the newly created archbishop of Gnesen in 1024. The clergy in Poland were at that time exclusively of foreign birth; intimate relations between them and the people were therefore impossible. The latter did not become enthusiastic about the new religion, nor yet did they return to paganism, for severe penalties, such as knocking out the teeth for violating the pre- cept of fasting, maintained obedience to the clergy among the people.
After the death of Chrobry disaster befell the Poles. Their neighbours attacked them on all sides. The son of Boleslaw, Mieczyslaw II (1025-34), unable to cope with his enemies, yielded allegiance to the em- peror, and lost the title of king. After his death there was an interregnum (1034—40) marked by a series of violent revolutions. Hosts of rebellious peasants traversed the country from end to end, furiously attacked castles, churches, and convents, and mur- dered noblemen and ecclesiastics. In M:iso\'ia pagan- ism was re-established. Casimir, a son of Mieczyslaw II, surnamed the Restorer, recovered the reins of government, with the aid of Henry VIII, restored law and order, and rooted out idolatry. At his death the sovereigntv devolved upon his son, Boleslaw II, Smialy (1058-79). This ruler was favoured by fortune in his warlike undertakings. His success at last led him to enter upon a conflict with the emperor. Conditions at the time were favourable to his securing political independence. The Emperor Henry IV was engaged in a struggle for sujiremacy with Pope (iregory VII, who allicil himself with the vassal I)rinces" hostile to the emjicror, among them Boleslaw Smialy, to whom he sent the kingly crown. Poland
