POLAND
186
POLAND
nobility elected Wladislaw IV king (1632-48).
Towards the end of this reign the warlike Cossacks, a
tribe of Little Russia on the River Dnieper in the
Ukraine, who defended the southeastern frontier of
Poland against the Turks and Tatars, revolted, joined
forces with the Tatars, and with their combined armies
inflicted a severe defeat upon the Poles. But even
worse times were in store for Poland under the suc-
ceeding rulers, John Casimir (1648-68) and Michael
Chorj'but Wisniowiecki (1669-73). The Cossacks
and Tatars made terrible ravages on the eastern
frontiers of Poland. Then the Swedes, under Charles
Gustavus, conquered (1665) almost the whole of Po-
land; King Casimir was compelled to flee to Silesia.
After that the Russians invaded the country and oc-
cupied Kieff , Smolensk, Polotsk, and Vilna. In the
autumn of 16.55 the State, as such, ceased to exist.
Lithuania and the Ukraine were under the power of
the Czar; Poland had been conquered by the Swedes;
Prussia was occupied by the Brandenburgers. No
one dared offer any resistance. But when the Paulite
monks of Czenstochau repelled an attack of 2000
Swedish troops, the spirit of the nobles and magnates
revived. The clergy made this a religious war, the
victory of Czenstochowa was ascribed to the interces-
sion of the Blessed Virgin, whose gracious image was
venerated in that convent ; she was proclaimed ' ' Queen
of the Crown of Poland", and John Casimir, at Lem-
berg (1656), devoutly placed himself and the entire
kingdom under her protection. In the event, the
Swedes were soon routed. The wars almost simul-
taneously conducted against Lutheran Swedes, the
schismatic Muscovites, and Mohammedan Tatars
intimately associated Catholicism with patriotism in
the minds of the Poles. For Faith and Fatherland"
became their watchword.
Overwhelmed by so many reverses, John Casimir abdicated in 1668. He was succeeded by Michael Wisniowiecki, during whose reign anarchy steadily increased. The Cossacks and Tatars again invaded Poland, as did a large army of Turks. The latter were defeated, however, bv Sobieski, at Chotin, when barely 4000 out of lO'OOO escaped death. In grati- tude for this glorious achievement the nation, after the death of Wisniowiecki, elected John Sobieski king (1674-96). An excellent general and pious Christian knight, Sobieski, immediately after his accession to the throne, entered upon a struggle with the Turks. He aimed at the complete annihilation of the Turkish power, and for this purpose zealously endeavoured to combine the Christian Powers against the Turks; he also entered into a defensive and offensive alliance with the German Emperor, ^^^len the grand vizier, Kara Mustafa, at the head of about 200,000 men, had crossed the German frontier and was besieging \'ienna, Sobieski isith a Polish army hastened to its relief, united his forces with the emperor's, and utterly de- feated the Turks (1683). This campaign was the beginning of a series of struggles between Poland and Turkey in which the latter was finally worsted. Un- der Augustus II, Elector of Saxony, Sobieski's im- mediate successor (1697-1733), Poland began to de- cline. Charles XII, King of Sweden, invaded Poland and occupied the most important cities. The Elector of Brandenburg, a former vassal of Poland, took ad- vantage of the internal dissensions to make himself King of Pru.ssia with the consent of Augustus II, thereby increasing the number of Poland's enemies by the addition of a powerful neighbour. Charles XII deposed Augustus II, and a new king, Stanislaus Leszczyn-ski (1704-09), was elected by the nobility. Civil war followed, and the Swedes and Hus.sians took advantage of it to plunder the coimtry, pillaging churches and con^•ents, and outraging the clergj". Augustus II resumed the throne under the protection of Russian troops, and Leszczynski fled to France.
From that time on Russia, constantly interfered in
the internal affairs of Poland. The next king, Augus-
tus III, of Saxony (1733-63), was chosen through the
influence of Russia. The political parties of Poland
endeavoured to introduce reforms, but Russia and
Prussia were able to thwart them. The king pro-
moted learning and popular education; he was in-
spired with the best intentions but was weak towards
Russia. From the very beginning Russia had the
partition of Poland in view, and for that reason fo-
mented discord among the Poles, as did Prussia,
especially by stirring up the magnates and the here-
tics. As early as 1733 the Diet deprived non-Catho-
lics of poUtical and civil rights, and Russia made use
of this fact to stir up open revolt. The question of
equal rights for dissidents was discussed, it is true, at
one session of the Diet, but in 1766 the protest of the
papal nuncio resulted in the rejection of the proposed
change. At the same time a keen agitation was car-
ried on against even the slightest concession in favour
of non-Catholics. The latter, together with some of
the aristocracy, who were dissatisfied with the abroga-
tion of several aristocratic prerogatives, altogether
80,000 in number, placed themselves under the pro-
tection of Russia, with the ex^press declaration that
they regarded the Empress Catherine II as protec-
tress of Poland, binding themselves to use their efforts
towards securing equal rights for the dissidents, and
not to change the Polish laws without the consent of
Russia. But the patriotic elements could not submit
to so disgraceful a dependence on Russia: they com-
bined, in the Confederation of Bar (in Podolia), in
defence of the Catholic Faith and the rights of inde-
pendence under republican institutions. At the same
time, through the efforts of the Carmelite monk
Marcus, the religious brotherhood of the Knights of
the Holy Cross was organized.
The confederation, therefore, was of a religious character: it desired, on the one hand, to free Poland from its dependence on Russia, on the other, to reject the demands of the dissidents. After it had declared an interregnum, the king's Polish regiments and the Russian forces took the field against it. The confed- eration had hardly been dispersed when Austria, Russia, and Prussia occupied the Polish frontier provinces (altogether about 3800 square miles -nith more than four million inhabitants). The manifesto of occupation set forth as reasons for the partition: the increasing anarchy in the republic; the necessitj' of protecting the neighbouring states against this lawlessness; the necessity of readjusting conditions in Poland in harmony with the ^^ews and interests of its neighbours. Prussia received West Prussia and Ermland; White Russia fell to Russia; GaUcia was given to Austria. In the countries thus annexed each state began to pursue its own policies. In White Russia there were many Ruthcnian L^niats: the Rus- sian government at once took active measures to sever their union with Rome, and bring them into the schism. The parishes of the Uniats were suppressed, and their property confiscated. A systematic course of oppression compelled them to adopt the schism. Austria and Prussia, in their turn, sought to repress the Polish national spirit; in particular, colonization of Polish territorv- with German colonists was begun systematically, and on a vast scale. The Poles were excluded from all official positions, which were now filled by Germans imported for that purpose in large numbers. The state schools became wholly German.
Such treatment by the neighbouring states roused all Poland to energetic action, so as to prevent a second partition. The Poles now learned the value of popular education, and their ablest men zealously applied themselves to improve the schools. The Four Years Diet (so called because its deliberations lasted four years without interruption) busied itself with reform, on 3 May, 1791, the Constitution was pro- claimed. According to this fundamental law the
