PHILOCALIAN
23
PHILO
(dealing with the period 1066-1189) appeared (Ber-
lin, 1827-8); "Deutsche Geschichte mit besonderer
Rucksicht auf Religion, Recht und Verfassung", of
which two volumes alone were issued (Beriin, 1832-4),
deals with Merovingian and Cariovingian times;
"Grundsiitze des gemeinen deutsehen Privatrechts
mit Einschluss des Lehnrechts" (Berlin, 1838);
"Deutsche Reiehs- und Rechtsgeschichte" (Munich,
1845). After his call to Munich, however, Phillips
recognized his chief task in the treatment of canon
law from the strictly Catholic standpoint. In addi-
tion to numerous smaller treatises, he published in
this domain: "Die Diozesansynode" (Freiburg,
1849), and especially his great "Kirchenrecht", which
appeared in seven volumes (Ratisbon, 1845-72), and
was continued by Vering (vol. VIII, i, Ratisbon,
1889). This comprehensive and important work exer-
cised a great influence on the study of canon law and
its principles. Phillips also published a "Lehrbuch
des Kirchenrechts" (Ratisbon, 1859-62; 3rd ed. by
Moufang, 1881) and "Vermischte Schriften" (3 vols.,
Ratisbon, 18.56-60).
Rosenthal. Konvertitenbilder, I (2nd ed.), 478 sqq.. Schulte in Allg. deulsche Biogr., XXVI (Leipzig, 188S), SO sqq.; WuBZ- BACH, Biogr. Lex. d. Kaisertums Oesterreich, XXII, 211 sqq. J. P. KiRSCH.
Philocalian Calendar. See Calendar, Chris- tian.
Philo Judseus, b. about 25 b. c. His family, of a sacerdotal line, was one of the most powerful of the populous Jennsh colony of Alexandria. His brother Alexander Lysimachus was steward to Anthony's second daughter, and married one of his sons to the daughter of Herod Agrippa, whom he had put under financial obligations. Alexander's son, Tiberius Alexander, apostatized and became procurator of Judea and Prefect of Egypt. Philo must have re- ceived a Jewish education, studying the laws and national traditions, but he followed also the Greek plan of studies (grammar with reading of the poets, geometry, rhetoric, dialectics) which he regarded as a preparation for philosophy. Notwithstanding the lack of direct information about his philosophical training, his works show that he had a first hand knowledge of the stoical theories then prevailing, Plato's dialogues, the neo-Pythagorcan works, and the moral popular literature, the outcome of Cynicism. He remained, however, profoundly attached to the Jewish religion with all the practices which it implied among the Jews of the dispersion and of which the basis was the unity of worship at the Temple in Jeru- salem. Toward the Alexandrine community and the duties which it required of him, his attitude was per- haps changeable; he possessed in his youth a taste for an exclusively contemplative life and solitary re- treats; and he complains of an official function which forced him to abandon his studies. Later he became engrossed with the material and moral interests of the community. His "Allegorical Commentary " of ten al- ludes to the vexations to which the Alexandrine Jews were subjected; a special treatise is devoted to the persecution of Flaccus, Prefect of Egypt. The best- known episode of his life is the voyage he made to Rome in 39; he had been chosen as head of the em- bassy which was to lay before Emperor Caius Caligula the complaints of the Jews regarding the introduction of statues of the emperor in the synagogues. This hardship, due to the Alexandrians, was all the more grievous to the Jews, as they had long been known for their loyalty, and their attachment to the empire was doubtless one of the chief causes of anti-.Semitism at Alexandria. The drawing up of the account of the embassy shortly after the death of Caius (41) is the latest known fact in the life of Philo.
Writings. — These contain most valuable informa- tion, not only on the intellectual and moral situation of the Jewish community at Alexandria, but still
more on the philosophical and rehgious syncretism
prevaihng in Greek civilization. They may be divided:
(1) exposition of the Jewish Law; (2) apologetical
works; (3) philosophical treatises.
(1) The expositions of the Law are in three works of varied character: (a) "The Exposition of the Law", which begins by a treatise on the creation of the world (Commentaries on the first chapter of Genesis) and continues with treatises on Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph (those on Isaac and Jacob are lost). Each of the patriarchs is considered as a type of a virtue and his life as a natural or unwritten law. Then follows a series of treatises on the laws written by Moses, grouped in order according to the Ten Com- mandments. The Exposition closes with the laws referring to general virtues (On Justice and Courage), and a treatise on the reward reserved to those who obey the Law. (See "De Prsmiis et Pccnis", §§1, 2.) (b) The great "Allegorical Commentary on Cienesis" is the chief source of information regarding Philo's ideas; in it he applies systematically the method of allegorical interpretation. The com- mentary follows the order of verses from Gen., ii, 1, to iv, 17, with some more or less important lacunie. It is not known whether the work began by a treatise on chapter 1, concerning creation; in any case, it can be seen from the allusions to this chapter that Philo had a system of interpretation on this point. Notwithstanding its form, this work is not a series of interpretations strung together verse by verse; the author considers Genesis in its entirety as a history of the soul from its formation in the intelligible world to the complete development of wisdom after its fall and its restoration by repentance (see ed. Mangey. "De Posteritate Caini", p. 259). The object of the allegorical method is to discern in each person and in his actions the symbol of some phase either in the fall or in the restoration of the soul, (c) " Questions and Solutions" are a series of questions set down at each verse of the Mosaic books. An Armenian transla- tion has preserved the questions on Genesis (Gen., ii, 4-xxiii, 8, with lacunae) and the questions on E.xodus (Ex., xii, 2-xxviii, 38), some Greek frag- ments of these works and of the questions on Le- viticus, a very mediocre Latin translation of the last part of the questions on Genesis (iv, 154 sq.). In these treatises as well as in the short discourses on Samson and Jonas, there is much less unity than in the preceding ones. This first group of works is addressed to readers already initiated in the Mosaic Law, i. e. to the author's coreligionists.
(2) It is quite different with his apologetical writ- ings. The "Life of Mo.ses" is a resume of the Jewish Law, intended for a larger public. The treatise "On Repentance" was written for the edification of the newly converted. The treatise "On Humanity" which followed that "On Piety" seems from its introduction to pertain to the "Life of Moses" and not to the "Exposition of the Law" as tradition and some contemporaneous scholars maintain. The 'TTToSeTii'd (fragments in Eusebius, " EvangoHcal Preparation", VIII, v, vi) as well as the "Apology for the Jews" (ibid., VIII, x) were written to defend his coreligionists against calumnies, while the "Con- templative Life" was to cultivate the best fruits of the Mosaic worship. The "Against Flaccus" and the "Embassy to Caius", with another work lost in the persecution of Sejanus, were intended to establish the truth about the pretended impiety of the Jews.
(3) Finally, we have purely philosophical treats ises: "On the Liberty of the Wise", "On the Incor- ruptibility of the World" -(authenticity contested by Bernays, but generally admitted now), "On Provi- dence", "On Animals" (these last two in the Arme- nian translations). The small treatise "De Mundo" is merely a compilation of passages from other works. The question of chronology is more difficult than that
