REFORMATION
704
REFORMATION
of the people. The Reformers, on the other hand,
displayed the greatest zeal for their cause. Leaving
no means unused by word and pen, by constant in-
tercourse with similarly minded persons, by popular
eloquence, which the leaders of the Reformation
were especially skilled in employing, by sermons
and popular writings appealing to the weaknesses
of the popular character, by inciting the fanaticism
of the masses, in short by clever and zealous utiliza-
tion of every opportunity and opening that presented
itself, they proved their ardour for the spread of
their doctrines. Meanwhile they proceeded with
great astuteness, purported to adhere strictly to
the essential truths of the Catholic Faith, retained
at first many of the external ceremonies of Catholic
worship, and declared their intention of abolishing
only things resting on human invention, seeking
thus to deceive the people concerning the real ob-
jects of their activity. They found indeed many
pious and zealous opponents in the ranks of the
regular and secular clergy, but the great need, es-
pecially at the beginning, was a universally or-
ganized and systematically conducted resistance to
this false reformation.
F. Many new institutions introduced by the Re- formers flattered the multitude — e. g. the reception of the chalice by the whole people, the use of the vernacular at Divine service, the popular religious h^-mns used during services, the reading of the Bible, the denial of the essential difference between clergy and laity. In this category may be included doctrines which had an attraction for many — e. g. justification by faith alone without reference to good works, the denial of freedom of will, which furnished an excuse for moral lapses, personal cer- tainty of salvation in faith (i. e. subjective confidence in the merits of Christ), the universal priesthood, which seemed to give all a direct share in sacerdotal functions and ecclesiastical administration.
G. Finally, one of the chief means employed in promoting the spread of the Reformation was the use of violence by the princes and the municipal au- thorities. Priests who remained CathoUc were ex- pelled and replaced by adherents of the new doctrine, and the people were compelled to attend the new ser\-ices. The faithful adherents of the Church were variously persecuted, and the civil authorities saw to it that the faith of the descendants of those who had strongly opposed the Reformation was gradually sapped. In many places the people were severed from the Church by brutal \-iolence; else- where to deceive the people the ruse was employed of retaining the Catholic rite outwardly for a long time, and prescribing for the reformed clergy the ecclesiastical vestments of the Catholic worship. The historj- of the Reformation shows incontestably that the civil power was the chief factor in spreading it in all lands, and that in the last analysis it was not religious, but dynastic, political, and social interests which proved decisive. Add to this that the princes and municipal magistrates who had joined the Re- formers tyrannized grossly over the consciences of their subjects and burghers. All must accept the religion prescribed by the civil ruler. The principle "Cuius regio, illius et religio" (Religion goes with the land) is an outgrowth of the Reformation, and was by it and its adherents, wherever they possessed the necessary power, put into practice.
IV. Spread of the Reformation in the Va- rious Countries. — A. Gemiany and German Sirit- zerland. — The Reformation was inaugurated in Germany when Luther affixed his celebrated theses to the doors of the church at Wittenberg, .31 October, 1517. From the consequences of papal excommunica- tion and the imperial ban Luther was protected by Elector Frederick of Saxony, his territorial sov- ereign. While outwardly adopting a neutral at-
titude, the latter encouraged the formation of
Lutheran communities within his domains, after
Luther had returned to Wittenberg and resumed
there the leadership of the reform movement, in
opposition to the Anabaptists. It was Luther who
introduced the arbitrarj- regulations for Di\'ine
worship and religious functions; in accordance with
these, Lutheran communities were established,
whereby an organized heretical body was opposed
to the Catholic Church. Among the other German
princes who early associated themselves -n-ith Luther
and seconded his efforts were: John of Saxony (the
brother of Frederick); Grand-Master Albert of
Prussia, who converted the lands of his order into
a secular duchy, becoming its hereditary lord on
accepting Lutheranism; Dukes Henrj- and Albert
of ^Iecklenburg; Count Albert of Mansfield; Count
Edzard of East Friesland; Landgrave PhiUp of
Hesse, who declared definitively for the Reformation
after 1524. Meanwhile in several German imperial
cities the reform movement was initiated by fol-
lowers of Luther — especially in Ulm, Augsburg,
Nuremberg, N6rdlingen,Strasburg, Constance, Mainz,
Erfurt, Zwickau, Magdeburg, Fraiikfort-on-the-
Main, and Bremen. The Lutheran princes formed
the Alliance of Torgau on 4 IMay, 1.526, for their
common defence. By their appearance at the Diet
of Speyer in 1526 they secured the adoption of the
resolution that, with respect to the Edict of Worms
against Luther and his erroneous doctrine, each
might adopt such attitude as he could answer for
before God and emperor. Liberty to introduce
the Reformation into their territories was thus
granted to the territorial rulers.- The Catholic
estates became discouraged, while the Lutheran
princes grew ever more extravagant in their demands.
Even the entirely moderate decrees of the Diet of
Speyer (1529) drew a protest from the Lutheran
and Reformed estates.
The negotiations at the Diet of Augsburg (1530), at which the estates rejecting the Catholic faith elaborated their creed (Augsburg Confession), showed that the restoration of reUgious unity was not to be effected. The Reformation extended wider and wider, both Lutheranism and Zwing- lianism being introduced into other German terri- tories. Besides the above-mentioned principalities and cities, it had made its way by 1530 into the prin- cipalities of BajTeuth, Ansbach, Anhalt, and Bruns- wick-Liineburg, and in the next few years into Pomerania, Jiihch-Cleve, and Wilrtemberg. In Silesia and the Duchy of Liegnitz the Reformation also made great strides. In 1531 the Smalkaldic League, an offensive and defensive alliance, was concluded between the Protestant princes and cities. Especially after its renewal (1535) this league was joined by other cities and princes who had espoused the Reformation, e. g. Count Palatine Rupert of Zweibriicken, Count WiUiam of Nassau, the cities of Augsburg, Kempten, Hamburg, and others. Further negotiations and discussions be- tween the reUgious parties were instituted with a view to ending the schism, but without success. Among the methods adopted by the Protestants in spreading the Reformation force was ever more freely employed. The Diocese of Naumburg- Zeitz becoming vacant. Elector John Frederick of Saxony installed by force in the see the Lutheran preacher Nicholas Amsdorf (instead of the cathedral provost, Julius von Pflug, chosen by the chapter), and himself undertook the secular government. Duke Henrj- of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel was exiled in 1542, and the Reformation introduced into his domains by force. In Cologne itself the Reformation was very nearly established by force. Some ec- clesiastical princes proved deUnquent, taking no measures against the innovations that spread daily
