RELIGION
742
RELIGION
the gift also signified that all things were God's. The
giving over of the object to the Deity implied that it
no longer belonged to the worshipper, but was made
the sacred property of the Deity (sacrificiutn). Being
thus removed from ordinar\- use, it was passed over to
the Deity by a total or partial dcstniction. Liquid
offerings were poured out on the ground. Food offer-
ings were generally burned. Others were cast into
rivers or the sea. Very frequently, in the food offer-
ings, only part was destroyed by fire, the rest being
eaten by the worshippers. In this way was symbolized
the friendly union of the Deity and the worshippers.
In some cases the underlying idea was that man was
the privileged guest at the Divine banquet, partaking
of the sacred food consecrated to the Deity. It tlms
had a quasi-sacramental significance. In the ancient
Hebrew religion there were food offerings, including
bloody sacrifices of animal victims. These were tj^jes
of the great atoning sacrifice of Christ. In the Cath-
olic religion, the sacrifice of Clirist on the Cross is
perpetuated by the unbloodj- sacrifice of the Mass, in
which the eternal Lamb of God is offered under the
appearance of bread and v.'ine and is devoutly con-
sumed by priest and faithful. The use of sacrifice has
led to the office of priest. In the beginning, sacrifice,
like prayer, was of the simplest kind and was offered
by the individual for his personal needs, by the head
of the family or clan for its members collectively, and
by the chief or king for the whole people.
"With the growth of ceremonial prayers and rites, the office of sacrifice gave rise to the class of priests whose duty it was to make the offerings in strict con- formity with the complicated ritual. The institution of the office of priest is thus later than that of sacrifice. Sacrifices were first made imder the open sky on raised hearths of earth or stone, which became altars. For the protection of permanent altars temples came to be built. The most solemn sacrifices were those offered in Ijehalf of the people for the obtaining of public benefits. To accommodate the large concourse of worshippers, the temples were often built on a grand scale, surpassing in magnificence the palaces of the kings. From the earfiest times rehgion was thus the great inspiring influence in the development of archi- tecture and the decorative arts. The arts of sculpture and painting owe much to the religious use of images and pictures, which from time inunemorial have been a-ssociated with worship. In acquiring notions of in- visible, intangible beings, man has generally made large use of the imagination, which, while it often misrepresents, serves to concretize and make real the things he recognizes but only vaguely grasps. This has led to the fashioning of forms in wood and stone to represent the mysterious beings to whom man looks for aid. These forms are apt to be repulsive where the art of sculpture is rudimentarj'. In the higher nations of antiquity, the making of sacred images in wood, stone, and metal was carried to a high degree of per- fection. Their use degenerated into idolatrj' where Polytheism prevailed. The Christian religion has allowed the use of statues and paintings to represent the Incarnate Son of God, the saints, and angels, and these images are a legitimate aid to devotion, since the honour that is given them is but relative, being di- rected through them to the beings they represent. It is like the relative honour given to the flag of the nation. The times and places of external worship deper\'e passing notice. In most religions we find certain days of the year set apart for the more solemn acts of sacrificial worship: some of these are suggested by recurring phenomena of nature (the new and full moon, spring-time with its awakening vegetation, autumn with its ripened liar\-ests, the two .solstices); others commemorate historic ewnts of great impor- tance for the religious life of the people. Hence the widespread observance of religions festivals, when public sacrifices are offered with elaborate ritual and
are accompanied with feasting and rest from ordinary
business. In Uke manner certain places, made vener-
able by immemorial worship or by association ■nnth
reputed visions, oracles, and miraculous cures, come
to be singled out as the spots most suitable for public
worship. Shrines and temples are built, to which a
peculiar sanctity attaches, and annual pilgrimages are
made to them from distant places.
The emotional element in external worship is a feature that cannot be overlooked. The solemn prayers and sacrifices to the Deitj' in behalf of the community are embellished with ritual acts expressive of the emotions brought into play in religious worship. The desire and hope of Divine help, joy at its posses- sion, gratitude for favours received, distress at the temporary estrangement of the offended Deity — all these emotions quicken the acts of worship and find expression in chants, instrumental music, dances, pro- cessions, and stately ceremonial. These expressions of feeling are also powerful means of arousing feeling, and thus give an intense earnestness to religion. This emotional element enters into the external worship of everj' religion, but its extent and character vary con- siderably, being determined by the particular standard of propriety prevailing in a given grade of culture. L'ncultured peoples, as a rule, are more emotional and more impulsive in expressing their emotions than are peoples of a high grade of culture. Hence the worship in lower religions is generally characterized by noisy, extravagant action and spectacular display. This is especially shown in th?ir sacred dances, which are for the most part violent, and from our point of view fantastic, but which are executed in a spirit of great earnestness. The early Hebrew religion, like most of the religions of antiquity, had its sacred dances. They are a popular feature of Islamism to-day. They have been wisely set aside in Christian worship, though in a verj' few places, as at Echternach in Luxemburg, and in the Seville cathedi-al, religious dancing gives a local colour to the celebration of certain festivals. Instru- mental and vocal music is a most fitting framework for liturgical prayers and solemn sacrifices. The be- ginnings of music were necessarily rude. Under the influence of religion, the rhythmic chants grew into inspiring hj-mns and psalms, giving rise to the sacred poetic literature of many nations. In the Christian religion sacred poetrj-, melody, and pol\'phonic music have been carried to the height of perfection. Closely allied with the religious dance, yet, when duly circum- scribed, not objectionable to refined taste, is the pageantry of religious ceremonial — the employment of numerous officiating ministers dressed in striking costumes to perform a solemn, complicated function, or the religious procession, in which the ministers, bearing sacred objects, are accomjianied by a long line of worshippers, marching to the sound of soul- stirring hymns and instrimiental music. All this makes a profound impression on the spectators. The Catholic Church has shown her wisdom by taking into her liturgj^ such of these elements as are the legitimate and dignified exiiression of religious feeling.
(b) Regulation of Conduct outside the Sphere of Moral Obligation. — This element is common to all religions. It is exemplified in the purifications, fasts, privation of certain kinds of food, abstinence at times from coniugal intercourse, cessation on certain days from ordinarv occupations, mutilations, and self- inflicted pains. Most of these serve as preparations, immediate or remote, for the .solemn acts of worship for which ceremonial purity is generally required. Hence many of them are embodied in rites closely associated with Divine worship. Most of these prac- tices rest on a sense of fitness strengthened by im- memorial custom. To neglect or disregard them is thought to entail calamities. Thus they have a quasi- religious sanction. In the Hebrew religion practices of this kind rested for the most part on express Di\ane
