SWEDEN
354
SWEDEN
memorial stones that had been formerly without in-
scriptions. During the era of the Migrations and of
the Vilving expeditions the esthetic sense of the Swe-
dish people developed as they became acquainted with
artistic models; this is shown especially in the orna-
mental work. The final victory of the Romano-
Christian civilization exerted a profound influence upon
technical artistic skill and the tendencies of art.
Although goldsmiths and armourers were still held in
high repute, and the memorj' of unusually skilful
masters was preserved in song, nevertheless from now
on art was above all employed in the service of reh-
gious ideas. The royal palaces and princely dwellings,
which were chiefly built of wood, have disappeared.
In Norway a number of the old wooden churches are still in existence, but in Sweden only the unassum- ing little chapel of Hedared, situated between BorSs and Alings&s, has withstood the storms of time. On the other hand there are a number of tasteful stone churches in various architectural styles and some- times very interesting details such as doorways, ar- cades, tabernacles etc. Some, as the Romanesque cathedrals of Lund and Link oping (Transition Period) and the Gothic cathedral of Upsala, fall but little below the celebrated architectural works of more southern countries in size and splendour. Among the churches worthy of notice are those at Skara, Vas- ter&s, and Strangnas; the monastic churches at Vam- hem and Sko (Cistercian), Sigtuna (Dominican), and Vadstena (Brigittine), also several churches, which are in good condition, as the Tyska Kyrkan or the Church of the Virgin at Visby, and some preserved as ruins, es- pecially on the Island of Gotland. The majority of the country churches were built in the Romanesque period; many of them were altered later during the Gothic era. At times the churches are round in shape with remarkably heavy walls; apparently they were used when occasion required for purposes of de- fence. A number of churches, as those at RMa, Risinge, Arboga etc., were adorned with frescoes, which were afterwards covered with whitewash. Of later years the whitewash has at times been re- moved and the pictures thus exposed have been skil- fully renovated. The churches were also adorned with stone and wood carvings, such as images of Christ, of the Madonna, and the saints, carved altars, baptismal fonts of stone or metal, reliquaries, hang- ing chandeliers and standing candelabra, chalices and patens, costly ciboriums, mon.strances, and ostenso- ries, processional crosses, censers, organs, bells, superb vestments, etc.
Fortunately, notwithstanding the thorough "puri- fication of the Church " undertaken by Gustavus Vasa, enough remains to show that in Sweden also during the IVIiddle Ages there was a sense of pious sacrifice and of purified art. As everj'where else the effect of what is called the "Reformation" was at first de- structive, and for centuries nothing new of impor- tance was produced in the domain of ecclesiastical art. It is only of late years that a more and more marked cliange for the better has appeared. Here and there altars of Catholic origin have been brought from old lumber-rooms and garrets and restored to their former places. Mosaic work is also used. A con- tinually increasing number of orthodox pastors make use of embroidered vestments in the services of the Church and there are signs of a ritualistic movement, which, however, is energetically attacked by the Lib- eral and unorthodox clergy.
The development of secular art since the twelfth century does not lie within the province of the present article. Instead of building churches Protestant Swe- den has very largi'ly erected castles and citadels; the.se have been lillcd with weapons, gorgeous furniture and table equipments, ancestral portraits and ijictures on panels; on sepulchres, higli-sounding epitaphs were common. In isolated instances artists have
ventured to represent Biblical subjects. There is no
Cathohc art; the poverty and small memberships of
the Cathohc communities forbid the encouragement
of such an art. Still the Church of St. Erik in Stock-
holm is a well-decorated building. The other Catho-
lic churches, as St. Eugenia at Stockholm, those at
Goteborg, Mahno, etc., have been able, in the course
of time, to obtain better vestments and utensils.
MoNTEUrs, Kulturgeach. Schwedens (190S), with 540 cuts; HiLDEBRAND, Kyrkliga konsten under Sveriges medeltid (2nd ed., Stockholm. 1907, with 300 cuts); Haeeuds, Bidrag till rdr odlings hdfder, continuation by Saun, Fataburen (1881); Bergstrom, Medeltidsmdlningama i Arboga-stadskt/rka (1898); Wrangel, Cisterciensernas infiytande pa medeltidens byggnad- skonst i Sverige (1899); Idem, Tegetdrkilekturen i Norra Europa rich Vppsala Domkyrka in Aiitiqu. Tidskrift for Sverige («!,!' i, L■l^' - "ri 11. 6 further authorities), del. IS. no. 1; Jan.se, .W /rail Os/er90(/u«d (.Stockholm, 1906); UtsUllning
iij '.'■'itit frdfi Slrdrtgnas stift; catalogue of the same
(I't'iM: < [ i:manand Roosval, iSrcriyes Kyrkur: Erlinghundra hiirnd. II (t psala. 1912), fasc. i;
Templum Cathedrale Vazteiietise (1S9S), contains accounts of other churches — Orberg, Skenninge, etc.; Ripa, Vadstena och dess 7ninnt.^rn'ir}^eu (1SS3); Lindstrom, Anteckningar om Gottands ,„..iU,<i I, IF (ISM. 1895); Hildebkand, Visby och 4ess mi"!,' i-'i;i; Steffen, Roynanska smdkyrkor i
Osterojulnii ' ' 'i'-Jdht hansyn till svenska forhdllanden
(19011; 1 1 I 1 ■'■:.. II . Anhihktur der Renaissance in Schweden (is'v;- , II,. ,i.l..s the years 1530-1760; Nyblom, Upsala u'.'i ' t<'imlingar (1902); Hasselgrej:, Utst&Uningen
i >' . I-' ^krifvning i ord och bild dfver allmdnna Konst
,.,l ,:.::,■■,■ '^ulningen (1897); BuMPUs, The Cathedrals of Norway, ^uf./oi, and Denmark (New York, 1908).
Literature. — In pre-Christian times there was no real literature in Sweden as neither written language nor runes came into use until quite a late period. The oldest known writing of a historical character, the so-called "Roksten" from East Got- land, appeared probably about the year 900. It re- counts in alliterative verse the heroic deeds of a king; later inscriptions have also the same theme. It may be assumeti with certainty that there were songs of gods and heroes that were orally preserved, but of which next to no traces now remain. The first to arouse the intellectual life of the nation were Catholic priests, especially monks; in doing this they both practised and taught the art of writing with intense energy. They wrote chiefly in the language of the Chm-ch; in all countries these Latin and exclusively religious works are very similar and therefore will not be considered hero. Gradually, however, the lan- guage of the people came more and more into use for Uterary purposes. It became a serviceable instru- ment for the expression of higher ideiils and noble sen- timents. Thus the way was prepared for a literature in the Swedish language. The early WTitings in Swedish were very largely practical. Thus the cur- rent conceptions of law were brought together into codes of law in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as the "Vastgotalagen" and "Ostgotalagen", the "Up- plandslagen" and "Gutalagen". A treatise of the thirteenth century called "Om stjrilsi Konunga och hoftinga" gives rules for right hving. The "Revela- tions" (Uppenbarclser) of St. Birgitta (d. 1373), which are at times very exlravagant in style, have been translated into many languages. Of the writ- ings of Magister Mathias, cathedral canon of Linko- ping and father-confessor of St. Birgitta, there is still in existence a translation of the Bible, besides several sermons and edifying treatises.
The first connected accounts of historical events were two chronicles in rhyme, the chronicle of Erik and that of Karl. The first relates in doggerel the quarrels of the Folkunger family up to the year 1319 and gives, in particular, a vi^'id description of the ac- tions of King Magnus Ladul^s. The other chronicle covers the era, i:iS9-14.')2. Poems of imaginary ad- ventures and French met rical rom:inces, as " Ivan and the Lion", "Fleur and Hhiuchefleur", were imitated inSweden, and history in a nitn;intio g:irb, as the li>gend of Alexander or that of Duke Frederick of Normandy etc., was also recast by Swedish wi-iters. -Vs one of the most important of tliesc early poets should be men-
