THEOLOGY
592
THEOLOGY
Aureolus (d. 1321) and the Englishman William
Occam (d. 1347). In union with Marsihus of Padua
and John of Jandun, Occam used Nominalism for
the avowed purpose of undermining the unity of the
Church. In this atmosphere flourished regalism
and opposition to the primacy of the pope, until it
reached its climax in the false principle: "ConciUum
supra Papam", which was preached from the house-
tops up to the time of the Councils of Constance and
Basle. It is only fair to state that it was the pressing
needs of the times more than anything else which
led some great men, as Pierre d'Ailly (d. 1425) and
Gerson (d. 1429), to embrace a doctrine which they
abandoned as soon as the papal schism was healed.
To understand the origin of the errors of WycUf,
Huss, and Luther, the history of Nominalism must be
studied. For what Luther knew as Scholasticism was
only the degenerated form which NominaUsm presents.
Even the more prominent Nominalists of the close
of the Middle Ages, as the general of the Augustin-
ians, Gregory of Rimini (d. 13.59), and Gabriel Biel
(d. 1495), who has been caDed the "last Scholastic",
did not escape the misfortune of falling into grievous
errors. Nominalist ic subtleties, coupled with an
austere pseudo- August inism of the ultra-rigoristic
type, made Gregory of Rimini the precursor of
Bajanism and Jansenism. Gabriel Biel, though
ranking among the better Nominalists and combining
solidity of doctrine with a spirit of loyalty to the
Church, yet exerted a baneful influence on his con-
temporaries, both by his unduly enthusiastic praise
of Occam and by the manner in which he commented
on Occam's writings.
The order which suffered least damage from Nomi- nalism was that of St. Dominic. For, with the possible exception of Durand of St. Pougain (d. 1332) and Holkot (d. 1349), its members were as a rule loyal to theh' gi-eat fellow-religious St. Thomas. Most prominent among them during the first half of the fourteenth century were: Hervjeus de Nedellee (d. 1323), a valiant opponent of Scotus; John of Paris (d. 1306); Peter of Palude (d. 1342); and especially Raynerius of Pisa (d. 1348), whowTotean alphabetical summary of the doctrine of St. Thomas which even to-day is useful. A prominent figure in the fifteenth century is St. Antonine of Florence (d. 1459), distinguished by his industry as a compiler and by his versatihty as an author; by his "Summa Theologiae" he did excellent service for positive theol- ogy. A powerful champion of Thomism was John Capreolus (d. 1444), the "Prince of Thomists" (princeps Thomistarum). Using the very words of St. Thomas, he refuted, in his adamantine "CliT^eus Thomistarum", the adversaries of Thomism in a masterly and convincing manner. It was only in the early part of the sixteenth century that commen- taries on the "Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas began to appear, among the first to undertake this work being Cardinal Cajetan of Vio (d. 1537) and Konrad Kollin (d. 1536). The philosophical "Sum- ma contra Gentes" found a masterly commentator in Francis of Ferrara (d. 1528).
Far less united than the Dominicans were the P'ranciscans, who partly favoured Nominalism, pai'tly adhered to pure Scotism. Among the latter the following are worthy of note: Francis Mayronis (d. 1327); John of Colonia; Peter of Aquila (d. about 1370), who as abbreviator of Scotus was called Scotel- lus (httle Scotus); Nicolaus de Orbellis (ca. 1460); and above all Lichetus (d. 1520), the famous commen- tator of Scotus. William of Vorrilong (about 1400), Stephen Brulofer (d. 14S5), and Nicholas of Niise (d. 1.509) belong to a third class which is character- ized by the tendency to closer contact with St. Bona- venture. A similar want of harmony and unity is discernible in the schools of the other orders. While the Augustinians James of Viterbo {d. 1308) and
Thomas of Strasburg (d. 1357) attached themselves
to iEgidius of Rome, thereby approaching closer to
St. Thomas, Gregory of Rimini, mentioned above,
championed an undisguised Nominalism. Alphon-
sus Vargas of Toledo (d. 1366), on the other hand,
was an advocate of Thomism in its strictest form.
Among the CarmeUtes, also, divergencies of doctrine
appeared. Gerard of Bologna (d. 1317) was a staunch
Thomist, while his brother in religion John Bacon-
thorp (d. 1346) dehghted in trifling controversies
against the Thomists. Drifting now with Nominal-
ism, now with Scotism, this original genius endeav-
oured, though without success, to found a new school
in his order. Generally sjieaking, however, the later
Carmelites were enthusiastic followers of St. Thomas.
The Order of the Carthusians produced in the fif-
teenth century a prominent and many-sided theolo-
gian in the person of Dionysius Ryckel (d. 1471),
surnamed "the Carthusian", a descendant of the
Leevis family, who set up his chair in Roermond
(Holland). From his pen we possess valuable
commentaries on Holy Writ, Pseudo-Dionysius,
Peter the Lombard, and St. Thomas. He was
equally conversant with mysticism and scholasticism.
Albert the Great, Henry of Ghent, and Dionysius
form a brilliant constellation which shed imdying
lustre on the tierman theology of the IMiddle Ages.
Leaving the monasteries and turning our attention to the secular clergy, we encounter men who, in spite of many defects, are not without merit in dogmatic theology. The first to deserve mention is the Englishman Thomas Bradwardine (d. 1340), the foremost mathematician of his da}- and Archbishop of Canterbury. His work "De causa Dei contra Pelagianos" evinces a mathematical mind and an unwonted depth of thought. LTnfortunately it is marred by an unbending, sombre rigorism, and this to such an extent that the Calvinistic Anglicans of a later century published it in defence of their own teachings. The Irish Bishop Richard Radulphus of Armagh (d. 1360), in his controversy with the Ai'me- nians, also fell into dogmatic inaccuracies, which paved the way for the errors of Wyclif. We may note in passing that the learned CarmeUte Thomas Netter (d. 1430), siu-named Waldensis, must be regarded as the ablest controversialist against the Wyclifites and Hussites. The great Cardinal Nich- olas of Cusa (d. 1404) stands out prominently as the inaugurator of a new speculative system in dog- matic theology; but his doctrine is in many respects open to criticism. A thorough treatise on the Church was written by John Torquemada (d. 1468), and a similar work by St. John Capistran (d. 1456). A marvel of learning, and already acknowledged as such by his contemporaries, was Alphonsus Tostatus (d. 14.54), the equal of Nicholas of Lyra (d. 1341) in Scriptural learning. He merits a place in the history of dogmatic theology, inasmuch as he inter- spersed his excellent commentaries on the Scriptures with dogmatic treatises, and in his work "Quinque paradoxa" gave to the world a fine treatise on Christology and Mariology.
As was to be exj^ected, mysticism went astray in this period and degenerated into sham pietism. A striking example of this is the anonymous "German Theology", edited by Martin Luther. This work must, however, not be confounded with the "German Theology" of the pious bishop Bert hold of Chiemsee (d. 1543), which, directed against the Reformers, is imbued with the genuine spirit of the Catholic Church.
(3) Modern Times (1500-1900).— As during the Patristic Period the rise of heresies was the occasion of the dcvelo])ment of dogmatic theology in the Church, so the manifold errors of the Renaissance and of the Reformation brought about a more accu- rate definition of important articles of faith. Along
