THOMISM
700
THOMISM
denying the existence of the sun when we see it shin-
ing (see Zigliara, op. cit., pp. 32-42). (f) The direct
and primary object of the intellect is the universal,
which is prepared and presented to the passive intel-
lect (intellectus possibilis) by the active intellect
(inlelleclus agens) which illuminates the phantas-
mata, or mental images, received through the senses,
and divests them of all individuating conditions.
This is called abstracting the universal idea from the
phantasmata, but the term must not be taken in a mate-
rialistic .sense. Abstraction is not a t ransf erring of some-
thing from one place to another; the illumination causes
all material and individuating conditions to disappear,
then the universal alone shines out and is perceived by
the vital action of the intellect (Q. Ixxxiv, a. 4; Q. Ixxxv,
a. 1, ad lu™, 3"™, 4"m). The process throughout is so
vital, and so far elevated above material conditions
and modes of action, that the nature of the acts and of
the objects apprehended proves the soul to be imma-
terial and spiritual, (g) The soul, by its very nature,
is immortal. Not only is it true that God will not
annihilate the soul, but from its very nature it will
always continue to exist, there being in it no principle
of disintegration (Zigiiara, p. 9). Hence human rea-
son can prove the incorruptibility (i. e. immortality)
of the soul, (h) The existence of God is not known
by an innate idea, it cannot be proved by arguments
a priori or a simultaneo; but it can be demonstrated
by o ■posteriori arguments. Ontologisra was never
taught by St. Thomas or by Thomists (see Lepidi,
"Exam. phil. theol. de ontologismo", Louvain, 1874,
c. 19; Zigliara, Theses I, VIII). (i) There are no human
(i. e. deliberate) acts indifferent in individuo.
(2) In Theology, (a) Faith and science, i. e. knowledge by demonstration, cannot co-exist in the same subject with regard to the same object (Zigliara, O., 32, VII); and the same is true of knowledge and opinion, (b) The metaphysical essence of God con- sists, according to some Thomists, in the intelligere actualisiimum, i. e. fulness of pure intellection, ac- cording to others in the perfection of aseitas, i. e. in- dependent existence (ZigUara, Th. VIII, IX). (c) The happiness of heaven, formally and in the ultimate analysis, consists in the vision, not in the fruition, of God. (d) The Divine attributes are distinguished from the Divine nature and from each other by a vir- tual distinction, i. e. by a distinctio ralionis cum funda- mento a parte ret. The distinctio actualis formalis of Scotus is rejected, (e) In attempting to explain the mystery of the Trinity — in as fa.r as man can conceive it — the relations must be considered perfectiones sim- pliciter simplices, i. e. excluding all imperfection. The Holy Ghost would not be distinct from the Son if He did not proceed from the Son as well as from the Father, (f) The angels, being pure spirits, are not, properly speaking, in any place; they are said to be in the place, or in the places, where they exercise their activity (Summa, I, Q. hi, a. 1). Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as an angel passing from place to place; but if an angel wishes to exercise its activity first in Japan and afterwards in America, it can do so in two instants (of angelic time), and need not pass through the intervening space (Q. liii). St. Thomas does not discuss the question' "How many angels can dance on the point of a needle? " He reminds us that we must not think of angels as if they were cor- poreal, and that, for an angel, it. makes no difference whether the sphere of his activity be the point of a needle or a continent (Q. lii, a. 2). Many angels can- not be said to be in the same place at the same time, for this would mean that whilst one angel is producing an effect others could be producing the same effect at the same time. There can he but one angel in the same place at (he same time (Q. Hi, a. 3). The knowli'dgf of the angels comes through ideas (species) infused by (;<i<l t<.Hi. Iv, a. 2, Ivii, a. 2, Iviii, a. 7). They do not nat urally know future contingents, the secrets
of souls, or the mysteries of grace (Q. Ivii, aa. 3, 45).
The angels choose either good or evil instantly, and
with full knowledge; hence their judgment is naturally
final and irrevocable (Q. Ixiv, a. 2). (g) Man was
created in the state of sanctifying grace. Grace was
not due to his nature, but God granted it to him from
the beginning (I, Q. xcv, a. 1). So great was the per-
fection of man in the state of original justice, and so
perfect the subjection of his lower faculties to the
higher, that his first sin could not have been a venial
sin (I-II, Q. Ixxxix, a. 3). (h) It is more probable
that the Incarnation would not have taken place had
man not sinned (III, Q. i, a. 3). In Christ there were
three kinds of knowledge: the scie/itia beata, i. e. the
knowledge of things in the Divine Essence; the sci-
entia inftisa, i. e. the knowledge of things through in-
fused ideas {species), and the scicrttia acquisita, i. e.
acquired or experimental knowledge, which was noth-
ing more than the actual exijerience of things which he
already knew. On this last point St. Thomas, in the
"Summa" (Q. ix, a. 4), exjihcitlj' retracts an opinion
which he had once held (III Sent., d. 14, Q. iii, a. .3). (i)
All sacraments of the New Law, including confirma-
tion and extreme unction, were instituted immediately
by Christ. Circumcision was a sacrament of the Old
Law and conferred grace which removed the stain of
original sin. The children of Jews or of other unbe-
lie\ers may not be baptized without the consent of
their parents (III, Q. l.xviii, a. 10; II-IL Q. x, a. 12;
Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1481). Contrition, confes-
sion, and satisfaction are the proximate matter
(materia proiima) of the Sacrament of Penance.
Thomists hold, against the Scotists, that when
Transubstantiation takes place in the Mass the Body
of Christ is not made present per modum adductionis,
i. e. is not brought to the altar, but they do not agree
in selecting the term which should be used to express
this action (cf. Billuart, "De Euchar. ", Diss, i, a. 7).
Cardinal Billot holds ("De eccl. sacr. ", Rome, 1900,
Th. XI, "De euchar.", p. 379) that the best, and the
only possible, explanation is the one given by St.
Thomas himself: Christ becomes present by transub-
stantiation, i. e. by the conversion of the substance
of bread into the substance of His body (III, Q. Ixxv,
a. 4; Sent., d. XI, Q. i, a. 1, q. 1). After the conse-
cration the accidents (accidentia) of the bread and
wine are preserved by Almighty God without a sub-
ject (Q. Ixxxvii, a. 1). It was on this question that the
doctors of Paris sought enlightenment from St.
Thomas (see Vaughan, "Life and Labours of St.
Thomas", London, 1872, II, p. 544). The earlier
Thomists, following St. Thomas (Suppl., Q. xxx\-ii,
a. 2), taught that thesub-diaconateand the four minor
orders were partial sacraments. Some recent Tho-
mists — e. g.. Billot (op. cit., p. 282) — and Tanquerey
(De ordine, n. 16) defend this opinion as more prob-
able and more in conformity with the definitions of
the councils. The giving of the chalice with wine
and of the paten with bread Thomists generally held
to be an essential part of ordination to the priesthood.
Some, however, taught that the imposition of hands
was at least necessary. On the question of divorce
under the Mosaic Law the disciples of St. Thomas,
like the saint himself (Suppl., Q. lx\-ii, a. 3), wavered,
some holding that a dispensation was granted, others
teaching that divorce was merely tolerated in order to
avoid great er evils.
II. The Thomistic School.. — The chief doctrines distinctive of this school, composed principally of Dominican writers, are the following: —
.\. In Philosophy. — (1) The unity of substantial form in comjiosite beings, applied to man, requires that the soul be the substantial form of the man, so as to exclude even the forma corporeitalis, admitted by Henry of Ghent. Scotus, and others (cf. Zigliara, P. 1.1: Denzinger-Bannwart, in note to n. 1655). (2) In created beings there is a real tlistinction between the
