TOTEMISM
793
TOTEMISM
probably are the multiplication of the reincarnated
forms of the spirits. When, e. g. the members of the
Kangaroo clan perform magic ceremonies for the
multiplication of Kangaroos, we are not warranted
in stating that kangaroo animals are in question,
for members of this clan are also called Kangaroos.
Hence the multiphcation of the human species may
be intended, so that the Kangaroo spirits may be
reincarnated. This seems to be confirmed by the
rites having a reference to human generation per-
formed at the puberty or Engwura ceremonies.
The main features in the rchgious aspect of Totem- ism are shown in the rites and ceremonies performed with a view to show or to attain identity with the totem, (a) Thus at solemn toteniic festivals the totem animal is sacrified and eaten even by its own clan. In Australia the eating of the totem animal •was considered essential to the rites for the multipli- cation of the totem. Hill-Tout says that in British Columbia these ceremonies would last through the winter and the people would be grouped according to their totems, thus changing the usual form of tribal organization, (b) By adoption of personal names referring to the appearance or habits of the totem animal, (c) By dressing in the skin or other parts of the totem animal, wearing badges, masks, crest-hats of the totem, arranging hair, painting face or body, tattooing and mutilating the body so as to resemble the totem; so also totems are painted or carved on weapons, canoes, huts, etc. From this custom we have the totem poles decorated with crests of clan and personal totems, and with red crosses represent- ing the ghosts of their vanquished foes, who are to be their slaves in the other world, (d) By dances and songs as dramatic performances of the myth relating to the acquisition of the spirit protector, (e) By con- sulting totems as auguries, e. g. the Algonquins and natives of Torres Straits.
VI. Social Aspect. — In its social aspect (a) the totem is generally taboo to the members of the clan. They could not kill it or eat its flesh. An exception is in the solemn totemic ceremonies. According to traditions the Australians in earlier times regularly killed and ate their totem. This is not now the cus- tom. The American Indian will address an apology to his totem before killing it. The Melanesian is supposed to have peculiar success in hunting his totem animal. Hill-Tout says the Salish tribes con- sidered the real siitia to be a spirit or mystery-being, though it might take the form of an animal and it could not be killed or hurt if the animal were slain, hence the hunter did not respect the life of the totem; in fact he was considered more successful in hunting his sulia animals than other men. Again, on the African Gold Coast a hunter of the Leopard family would not hesitate to kill a troublesome leopard, but he would put oil in the wounds (Haroer m "Jour. Anth. Inst.", XXXVI).
(b) Among the Iroquois and the Southern Mewuks of California the totem governs the choice of partners in games, the placing and treatment of visitors.
(c) The main .social feature of Totemism is shown in binding together the members of the totem clans. All members of the totem clan regard one another as kinsmen and brothers, and are bound to mutual help and protection. Tylor says every Indian looked for and found hospitality in a hut where he saw his own totem figured and, if he was taken captive in war, his clansmen would ransom him (.Tour. Anth. Inst., XXVIII). Morgan shows the superiority of the totem bond over the tribal bond among the Iroquois. In the Torres Straits warfare could not affect the friendship of the totem-brethren. Yet Harper says that on the Gulf Coast a man cannot safely visit a person of the same totem belonging to an unfriendly tribe, nor does he hesitate to kill another having the same totem as himself.
(d) In the social phase must be viewed the secret
societies so widely prevalent among the American
Indians.
(e) Ford holds that in totemic obligations we are confronted with the beginnings of authority ("Annals of American Academy of Pohtical and Social Science", XXIII, Philadelphia, 1904). Jevons and Reinach teach that the totem clan is the earhest social organi- zation known in the evolution of society (Folk Lore, X). Loret sees in Totemism the explanation of the early Egyptian hieroglyphics, and says it is the parent of writing (Musce Guimct, XIX, 1904-05). Frazer says that it had an indirect influence on agriculture, the domestication of animals and the use of metals, that its influence on economic progress appears to be httle more than a shadowy conjecture, but it has done something for pictorial and plastic art, e. g. in totemic representations (Totemism and Exogamy, IV, 19-25). Father Brun, however, warns us that al- though certain social institutions are placed under the protection of totemic beliefs, the social institutions as a whole are not based upon Totemism. The truth is that Totemism, like any other beUef which enters into the Ufe of a people, has an influence on their culture.
(f ) The influence of Totemism is shown also in the birth, marriage, and death ceremonies. Thus, e. g. a child of the Ottawa deer clan on the fifth day after birth was painted with red spots or stripes in imitation of a fawn; the bride and groom in the Kolong red-dog clan of Java were rubbed before marriage with the ashes of a red-dog's bones; a member of the Amaha buffalo clan was on dying wrapped in a buffalo robe, etc.
VII. Exogamy.- — The relation of exogamy to Totemism is a problem of great difficulty, and will not be completely solved until the origin of exogamy is definitely established. It is a fact that the custom prevails in many tribes that a man cannot marry a woman of his own totem, but must seek a wife from another totem clan. Hence many writers inferred that Totemism and exognniy existed together as different sides of the same iii>liluti(iii. Thus \. Lang regards exogamy as the <s.Miili;il feature of Totemism. Hill-Tout takes issue wilh him maintaining that it is accidental or secondary, that the pos.se.ssion of the same totem becomes a bar (o marriage only because it marks kinship by blood, which is the real bar. Lang by totem means "the hereditary totem of the exogamous clan" and admits that if we take totem in its wider extent as comprehending the "personal" totem, the "secret .society" totem and the "tribal" totem, then members of these totem groups can inter- marry (ibid., p. 204). McLeiman and Robertson Smith held that Totemi.sm is found generally in con- nexion with exogamy, but must be older than exog- amy. This view has been confirmed by the investiga- tions of Spencer and Gillen among the Australian savages. They teach that Totemism is a primary and exogamy a secondary feature, and give traditions proving the existence of totems long before that of exogamous groups, and that when the latter did arise, the totems were not affected by them. Hence the exogamous class is a social organization totally differ- ent in origin and nature from the totemic clan, and not a mere extension of it, although they have crossed and blended in many places. Again Totemism and exogamy are found existing separately. Father Brun says the totemic clans of the Sudan are not exoga- mous. Dr. Hivers points out that the natives of Banks Islands have pure Totemism and pure exogamy existing side by side without influencing each other.
DifTerent theories have been proposed to account for the origin of exogamy. Westermurk says it arose in the aversion to marriage between blood relatives or near kin, i. e. in horror of incest. This is very prob- ably the true solution, McLennan holds that exog-
