BEAUFORT
BERGEN
and issued in 1912 as a supplementary volume to his
"Geschichte der Weltliteratur", were all written with
the intent that they should form part of his larger
history and life work. In earlier years, as preparatory
writings, he had issued "Lessings religiosen Entwick-
lungsgang" (1877), "Longfellow" (1887), an apprecia-
tion of the poems of the American poet which passed
into a second edition ten years later, " Joost van den
Vondel" (1882), a biography of the great Dutchman
translated four years later into Dutch, and lastly the
celebrated biography of Goethe in three volumes
(1879). In addition he published two works as ex-
pressions of gratitude and piety: "Erinnerungen an
Bischof Greith" (1884), and "Gallus Jakob Baum-
gartner" (1892). Two years previously he had issued
the unfinished work of his father, " Die Geschichte des
Kantons St. Gallen", in three volumes. The six
volumes of his history of the Literature of the world
are well known: "VVestasien und die Nillander"
(1897); "Indicn und Ostasien" (1897); "Die klas-
sische Literatur der Griechen und Romer" (1900);
"Die lateinische und griechische Literatur der
christUchen Volker" (1900); "Die franzosische
Literatur" (190.5); and lastly "Die italienische
Literatur" (1911),during the writing of which he died.
It is hardly necessary to say that a man of such
spirit was also a fine critic. The thoroughly Catholic
point of view in all his works is also self-evident.
His strong religious convictions led him to take part
in the dispute over Catholic Uterature by the publica-
tion of the pamphlet "Die SteUung der deutschen
Kathohken zur neucren Literatur". Father Baum-
gartner, however, was not contentious by nature; he
was rather a lover of peace, although a harmless love
of mischief showed itself at times in his writings. \s
a loyal son of his Order he always felt that with the
pen he exercised a sacred office for the defence of truth
and the honour of God.
Siimmen au» Maria-Loach, LXXIX (1910). 349-372; Scheid, BaumgaTlTier, ein Gedenkblalt seines Lebens und Wirkens (Hamm, 1911).
N. Scheid.
Beaufort, Henry. See Plantagbnet, Henry of, Vol. XII, p. 148.
Beccaria, Giovanni Battista, physicist, b. at Mondovi, 3 October, 1716; d. at Turin, 27 May, 1781. .\t the age of sixteen he entered the Order of Clerks Regular of St. Joseph Calasanctius, and succes8i\-ely taught in the Scuole Pie of Palermo and Rome. His ability as instructor being soon recognized, he was appointed by royal authority professor of physics in the University of Turin (1748). Here he ardently devoted himself to researches on atmospheric elec- tricity, in which he made hberal use of kites, rockets, and iron wire for the purpose of exploring the elec- trical conditions of the atmo.sphere. Henley's pith-ball electroscope was his recording instrument. In broken or stormy weather, positive and negative electrification were detected; whereas in calm, serene weather "the excessive or positive was always found ". The sinuous or forked character of hght ning was attributed to the resistance of the air; and the rupture of the shoes of a man struck by a flash, to the "moisture of the feet flying into vapour". Beccaria confirmed the ob.servation of Andrew Gordon (q. v.) that water evaporates more rapidly when electrified; also the conclusion of Abb6s NoUrt and Menon that animals (rats, pigeons, chaffinches) lose weight when subjected to prolonged electrification, the lo.ss being ascribed to increased "transpiration" under electri- cal stimulus. He was also among the first to recog- nize and clearly state that the electrical charge on a conductor is confined to the surface. An experimen- tal demonstration of this law of electrostatics was devised by Cavendish in 177.5 and independently by Coulomb in 17SS and popularized in IMO by Blot, whose name it usually bears. Beccaria adopted the
two-fluid theory of Frankhn as well as the views of the
American philosopher on the preventive and protec-
tive functions of lightning conductors.
In 17.5.5 Beccaria was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 176() he contributed a paper to the "Philosophical Transactions", in which he describes (in Latin) five of the more important of his experimen- tal researches. In 1770 he contributed a second paper (also in Latin) in which he expounds five theorems followed by fifteen corollaries in electro- statics. His principal work is his treatise "Dell' elettricismo artificiale e naturale" (1753), which was translated into English in 1778. Other works are "Lettere suU' elettricismo" (17.58); "Experimenta atque observationes quibus electricitas vindex late constituitur" (17(")9); and "Dell' elettricita terrestre atmosferica a cielo sereno" (1775).
Tana, Elogio del P. Giov. BaUa. Beccaria (1781); Eandi, Memorie storiche inlorno agli studii del P. Beccaria (17S3).
Brother Potamian.
Bergen (Berga, Bergensis), Ancient See of, in Norway. The diocese included the Provinces of Nordre and Sondre Bergenhus, and the district of Sondmor in the Province of Romsdal. The discovery at Selo in 996 of the supposed remains of St. Sun- niva and her companions led King Olaf Trygveson to build a church there. It was not, however, till 1068 that a bishopric and a monastery were founded at Selo by King Olaf Kyrre. Bernard the Saxon was the first bishop, but later on he removed to the newly founded city of Bergen, where he died as its first bishop about 1090. In 1152 Bergen became a suffra- gan bishopric of the new metropolitan See of 'Trondh- jem, and a cathedral chapter was set up there. Bishop Paul (1156-94) saw the completion of the Cathedral of Christ Church in time for the holding of a provincial council there and for the coronation of King Magnus Erlingson, the first coronation of a Nor- wegian king, in 1164. In 1170 the relics of St. Sun- niva were translated to the cathedral. During the episcopate of Bishop Arne (1226-56), namely on 29 July, 1247, Cardinal Wilhelm of Sabina crowned King Haakon Haakonsson. In 1271 the Royal Chapel of the Holy Apostles at Bergen was made collegiate. From 1275 to 1302 King Magnus built a great church (the finest in Norway), as his new royal chapel, to re- ceive a relic of the Crown of Thorns. The dean took tlie title of Master of the (fourteen) Royal Chapels and was granted the right to use the episcopal orna- ments. Bishop Arne Sigurds.s6n (130.5-14) re- garded the privileges of the Chapel Royal at Bergen as an encroachment upon the rights of his see. He could not, however, deprive the dean, Finn Haldors- son, of his .semi-independent position, as the latter had the support of the Holy See. Arne also asserted in vain his claim that the bishops of the Fferoe Islands should be chosen amongst the clergy of the Diocese of Bergen. He was, however, successful in compelling the German mercliants at, Bergen to pay tithe Bishop Thorstein (1342-49) ilied of the Black Death, as did nearly all the Norwefri:tn bishops. To his successor, the Englishman Ciisbritli (1349-69), we owe the Bergen Manuscript (Bjiirgynjar knifskinn). As- lak Bolt, Bishop of Bergen from 1 lOS, was trans- lated to the See of Trondhjem in 1430. Bishop Thor- leif Olafsson (1430-50), having joined Ohif Nikson at the Brigilline Convent of Munkaiif, was killed there bv the (iermans of the Hans;i on 1 S<'ptember, 14,55. The last Catholic bishop, Olaf Thorkelssiin (1.523-35) allowed the Cathedral of Christ Church, the Royal Chapel of the ."Apostles, the Dominican convent, and otherecelesi;istical buildings at Bergen to bede.stroyed, when the fortress of Bergenhus was enlarged. His successor, (icble Pederssdn, became a Luther.an.
Eighteen provincial councils were held at Bergen. The most inii)ort;int were the following: The council of 1164 confirmed arrangements made in 1152 by the
