BYZANTINE
105
BYZANTINE
695 things had come to such a pass that Justinian II
reconquered Constantinople through Bulgarian as-
sistance. In later centuries the Bulgarian State be-
came Byzantium's most dangerous European foe.
But at this period its most formidable enemies were its neighbours, the Persians, Ii will be recalled how Anastasius and Justinian 1 had fought with this na- tion, and how. in the peace oi 562, Lazistan at least had been held as a guarantee of Byzantine supremacy over the trade routes to Central Asia. The twenty years' war (571-91) brought many vicissitudes. At last the Emperor Mauritius obtained possession of Dara and Martyropolis, in Syria, as well as the greater part of Armenia. Nisibis, however, remained Persian. So far. an important advantage had been gained for Byzantium. But the assassination of Mauritius effected a marked change. Chosroes II, Parvez, commenced war against the usurper Phocas, which he continued against his successor, Heraclius. In 606 Dara fell, and in 60S the Persians appeared for the first time before Chalcedon. In 611 they cap- tured Antioch and the eastern part of Asia Minor, in 613 Damascus, and in 614 Jerusalem. The True Cross fell into their hands and was carried off to Persia. In 615 a Persian army stood before Chalce- don for the second time. In 619 they conquered \ncvra. in Asia Minor, and even Egypt. Heraclius saved himself splendidly from this terrible situation. In three daring campaigns (622-28) he freed Ar- menia from her oppressors. By the peace of 62S Ann. nia and Syria were recovered. On 14 Septem- ber. 629. the True Cross, restored by the Persians, was again set up in Jerusalem, and in 629 Egypt like- wise was wrested from the Persians. Then came the fearful reverses consequent on the Arab rising; in 635 Damascus fell; in 637 Jerusalem was surrendered by the Patriarch Sophronius, after a siege of two years. At first (634) Heraclius himself came to An- tioch to organize the campaign; then followed the lethargy due to his sickness, and he supinely allowed the Arabs to advance. At his death (lillj Egypt was virtually lost; on 29 September, 643, Amru en- tered Alexandria; in 647 the province of Africa, and in 697 its capital. Carthage, fell into the hands of the Arabs. Meanwhile the Arabs had built a navy, and soon the war raged on all sides. They had taken Cyprus in 648; in 655 they first thought of attacking Con- stantinople. Fortunately their Beet was vanquished off the Lycian coast. Later they established them- selves in Cyzicus, and from 673 to t>77 menaced the capital. At the same time 1 1 1 < \ conquered Armenia (654) and ravaged Asia Minor. In 668 they pushed on to Chalcr 'don. During all these losses, tic ( . reeks could show only one step gained or rather one suc- cessful attempt to safeguard their power. Many Christian families emigrated from Asia Minor and Syria to Sicily, Lower Italy, and Rome, thusstn ening the Byzantine power in the West, and the Em- I lonstans could use Sicily the re-
conquest of Africa (662). Be is thought to have intended making Home once more the capita] of the empire. In 60S. however, lie was murdered in Syra- cuse, during a military upri ing and with him these vast plans came to an end. Hi- tinelV,
was very young at the time oi hi till he
was not only able to assert his authority in the face of an unruly army, but soon, like his tat her and great- grandfather, proved himself •< brave warrior, ami displayed consummate gem ralship against the Arabs, the Slav.-, an I tin- Bulgarians.
The splendid prowess of Byzantium is still bril- liantly apparent, in spite of these losses. This was
due. in the first place, to its excellent military equiji- ment. The period of the Arab peril, a peril which at a later date in the West, during the time of Charles Martel. -.a the introduction of cavalry wearing de- fensive armour in place of the Roman and Germanic
infantry, marked a like innovation in the East, at
an earlier period. The Byzantine cuirassiers, or
eataphracti, probably originated at this time. More-
over, the State was now thoroughly organized on
military lines. The system of themata, after the
model of the exarchate of Ravenna and Africa,
found acceptance in Asia Minor, and gradually
spread through the whole empire. The thrnia of the
( 'ihyrrhaiits, in southern Asia Minor, belonged to
the districts which during the Roman Republic had
produced the most notorious pirates. In the Saracen
wars the fleet played a very important part; the
Byzantine victory, therefore, showed that the Byz-
antine fleet was not only equal to that of the Arabs
in point of men and solidity of construction, but
had an important technical advantage. During
the great leaguer of Constantinople, from April to
September, 673, Callinicus, a Syrian, is said to have
taught the Greeks the vise of gunpowder, or "Greek
fire".
It remains to discuss the ecclesiastical disputes of the seventh century. At fust everything seemed to point towards a compromise. The Persian in- vasions, which had swept over the Christian peoples of the Orient since 606, probably strengthened a feeling of kinship among Christian nations. Even during his Armenian campaign, Heraclius began to prepare the way for the union with the Oriental Churches. He was supported in his efforts by Ser- gius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and Pope Hono- rius I. As a basis of dogmatic unity, Heraclius pro- claimed as a formula of faith the "union of the two Natures of the God-Man through the Divine-human energy". Everything seemed propitious, the only opponent of the movement being Sophronius. Pa- triarch of Jerusalem, who was afterwards forced to surrender the city to the Arabs. His antagonism lent the opposition movement stability and per- manence. Heraclius, in his effort to conciliate the Monophysites, in his "Ecthesis" of 638 emphasized still more emphatically the union of the two natures by one will (Monothelitism). Immediately the West — and particularly Africa, the scene of St. Maxinius's labours — set up the standard of opposition. It was of no avail that Emperor Constans II in his "Typus" (648) forbade all contention over the number of wills and energies, and that he caused Pope Martin I. as well as St. Maximus, to be apprehended and ban- ished to Cherson. The West was temporarily de- feated, though destined finally to conquer. After Syria, Egypt, and Africa had been lost to the Arabs, there was no further object in trying to es- tablish Monothelitism. At the Sixth (Ecumenical Council (680-81) orthodoxy was re-established by the Emperor Constantine IV. That this move was in harmony with the desire of the Creek people, was evident during the reign of Philippicus, the Armenian. His attempt to restore Monothelitism in the Rome of the East resulted in his dethronement. Once more the Creeks had cut themselves loose from the Armenians; whether to the advantage ol the empire is a question which receives various answers.
(3) Iconoclasm; 717-867.
Leo III. the Syrian (Isaurian)
Constantine V, Copronymus
Leo 1 V Irene
Maria
( ionstantine VI
Theodota
Nicephorus I
Stauracius
Michael I, Rhangabe
