CANONS
288
CANONS
cerning discipline issued by assemblies of bishops re-
ceived the name of canons.
With the Council of Trent in the sixteenth century began the departure from this ancient usage. This council used the word canon for short, dogmatic definitions with an anathema attached to them. On the other hand it gave the name of decrees to its dis- ciplinary regulations. The example set by Trent was followed by the Council of the Vatican. The usage of Trent seems to bring canon nearer to the signification it bore before the Council of Nice, when it referred rather to faith than to discipline. The general idea of a decision by Church authority seems to be also the root-meaning of the expressions "Canon of Scripture", "Canon of the Mass", "Canon of Saints", although for the last term Ducange (s. v. Canonizare) suggests a somewhat different origin. As ecclesiastical regulations began to multiply, it became necessary to gather them into codices, which generally received the title of "Collection of Canons" (see Canons, Collections of Ancient). In these, civil laws are often added to the Church regulations. For such collections the Greeks used the term Nomo- canones. The Latins have no special name for them, though Capitularies (q. v.), e. g. of Charlemagne, is sometimes referred to as a somewhat parallel usage in the West.
As to the authority of ecclesiastical canons, it is evident a distinction must be made when speaking of canons of faith and canons of discipline, for the former are irreversible, the latter are not. Similarly, it is plain that canons containing a precept already binding by reason of Divine or natural law, cannot be on the same footing as those that are of mere ecclesiastical origin. In general, the " Corpus Juris Canonici " declares (cap. 1. de Const.) that canonical statutes are binding on all; likewise (cap. Quum scimus) that bishops are the guardians of the canons and must see to their observ- ance. When there is question of canons in the or- dinary ecclesiastical sense (namely, that which ob- tained before the Council of Trent), as they refer principally to matters of discipline, it must be borne in mind that they are neither immutable nor irre- formable. The subject-matter of such canons de- pends not only on circumstances of persons, places, and times, but also on considerations of expediency or temporary necessity. A change in any of the causes which brought about the framing of the canons, will make a change in their binding-force, for disci- plinary regulations are almost necessarily mutable. In like manner when there is question of the binding force of a canon, it is important to determine whether it was issued by a general council or by the decree of a pope, as imposing an obligation on all the faithful, or whether it was framed solely for restricted regions or persons. In the latter case its binding-force is as restricted as its scope.
It must be borne in mind that the object which the Church has always had in view in promulgating her canons has been the guidance and preservation of the clergy and laity in the duties of a Christian life and in the best methods of ecclesiastical administration. Although, therefore, such canons contain elements of positive human law, yet ultimately they are founded on the Divine or natural law. As such they cannot be entirely abrogated by contrary custom (Ferraris, loc. cit.), though their rigour may be mitigated by certain circumstances, on the ceasing of which, the pristine rigour of the canon would be again binding. When they are entirely of human law, they may, of course, be completely abrogated, not only by legisla- tion on the part of the proper authorities, but also by legitimate custom. The study of the sacred canons cially enjoined on the clergy. Perhaps most of the regulations refer directly to ecclesiastics, and the clergy will find in them the surest guidance for their own conduct and for the fruitful exercise of their
ministry in directing the faithful. The neglect of the
prescriptions of the sacred canons has always been
the source of corruption in morals, and perhaps the
chief reason for the loss of faith by nations as well as
by individuals.
Ferraris, Bibliotheca (Rome, 1886). II; Smith, Elements of Ecel. Law (New York, 1S95), I; Werxz, Jut Decretalium (Rome, 1898); Bickell, Geschichte des K irehenrechts (Leipzig, 1843).
William H. W. Fanning.
Canons and Canonesses Regular (also called Regular Clerics, Religious Clerics, Cleric-Can- ons, Augustiviax Canons, Black Canons, Monk- Canons). — According to St. Thomas Aquinas, a canon regular is essentially a religious cleric, or, as the same doctor aptly expresses it: "The Order of Canons Regular is necessarily constituted by religious clerics, because they are essentially destined to those works which relate to the Divine mysteries, whereas it is not so with the monastic Orders" (II— II, Q. clxxxix, a. 8, ad 2um, and 2. 2, Q. 189, A. 8, ad. 2. and 2, 2, Q. 184, A. 8, Q. clxxxiv, a. 8). We have then here what con- stitutes a canon regular and what distinguishes him from a monk. The clerical state is essential to the Order of Canons Regular, whereas it is only accidental to the Monastic Order. Hence Erasmus, himself a canon regular, declared that the canons regular are a quid medium between the monks and the secular clergy. And for the same reason Nigellus Vireker, a Benedictine monk of Canterbury in the twelfth cent- ury, contrasts the life of canons regular as he knew them, with that of his own brethren and the Cister- cians, pointing out the advantages of the former. The canons, he tells us, were spared the long choral duties, the sharp reproofs, the stern discipline of the Black Monks, and were not bound to the Spartan simplicity of vesture and diet of the field-working Cistercians ("Speculum Stultorum", Rolls Series; "The Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets of the Twelfth Century"). The "Llanthony Chronicler" relates how the first founders of his famous abbey, having consulted among themselves, decided to become canons regular, first, because on account of their charity they were well liked by all, and then because they were satisfied with a modest manner of living, their habit, though clean, being decent, neither too coarse, nor too rich. In this moderation of life we may say that canons regular follow the example of their lawgiver, St. Augustine, of whom St. Possidius. his biographer, relates that his habit, his furniture, his clothes were always decent, neither too showy nor too humble and shabby.
The spirit of the canonical order is thus quaintly but clearly explained in the "Observances in Use at the Augustinian Prion- at Barnwell. Cambridge", lately edited with a translation, by F. W. Clarke: "The road along which Canons Regular walk in order to reach the heavenly Jerusalem is the rule of Blessed Augustine. Further lest Canons Regular should wan- der away from the rule, there are given to them, in addition, observances in accordance with it handed down from remote ages and approved among holy fathers in all quarters of the world. This rule is sim- ple and easy, so thai unlearned men and children can walk in it without stumbling. On the other hand it is deep and lofty, so that the wise and strong can find in it matter for abundant and perfect contemplation. An elephant can swim in it and a lamb can walk in it safely. As a lofty tower surrounded on all sides by walls makes the soldiers who garrison it safe, fear- less, and impregnable, so the rule of Blessed Augus- tine, fortified on all sides by observances in accordance with it. makes its soldiers, that is. l.inons Regular, undismayed at the attacks, safe and invincible. — To explain further the nature ami distinctive spirit of the canonical order, we may say. with St. Augustine, that a canon regular professes two things, "sancti-
