EDUCATION
302
EDUCATION
adapted to some particular need, and the whole sys-
tem of sacraments, from baptism to extreme unction,
builds up the spiritual life by processes of cleansing,
strengthening, nourishing, and healing, which ])araUel
the stages and requirements of organic growth.
In a larger way, also, the liturgical year, as it com- memorates the principal events in the life of Christ, brings into Christian worship a variety which affects to some extent both the details of the liturgy itself and the religious feelings which it uispires — from the joy of Christmas to the triumph of Easter and Pentecost. For the due observance of the greater festivals the Church provides, as in Advent and Lent, by seasons of preparation. The Old Law with its tj-pes foreshad- owed the New; the Baptist announced the Messiah; Christ himself prepared His disciples beforehand for the mystery of the Eucharist, for His death, and for the coming of the Holy Ghost. The Church, following the same practice, arouses in the mind of the faithful those thoughts and feelings which form an appercep- tive preparation for the central mysteries of faith and their proper observance at appointed times. Along with these greater solemnities come year by year the commemorations of the Christian heroes, the men and women who have walked in the footsteps of Christ, laboured for the spread of His kmgdom, or even shed their blood for His sake. These are held up as models to be imitated, as realizations more or less perfect of the sublime ideal which is Christ Himself. And among the saints the foremost place is given to Mary the Mother of Christ, the ideal of Christian woman- hood, to whom the Son of God was "subject" in the home at Nazareth. Each festival in her honour is at once an exhortation to copy her virtues and an evi- dence of the high station to which woman was raised by Christianity. The liturgy, then, is an application on a large scale of those principles which underlie all real teaching — appeal to the senses, association, ap- perception, expression, and imitation. The Church did not begin by theorizing about these, nor did she wait for a psychological analysis to determine their value. Instructed by her Founder, she simply incor- porated in her liturgy those elements which were best fitted to teach men the truth and lead them to act in conformity with the Gospel. It is none the less signifi- cant that modern education is adopting for its own purposes, i. e. the teaching of secular subjects, the psychological principles which the Church from the beginning has put into practice.
While the Church, in her interior life and in the exe- cution of her mission, gave proof of her vitality and of her ability to teach mankind, she necessarily came into contact with influences and practices which were the legacy of paganism. In point of religious belief there %vas, of course, a clean breach between the poly- theism of Athens and Rome and the doctrines of Christianity. But philosophy and literature were factors which had to be counted with as well as the educational system, which was still largely under pagan control. Schools had been opened by converts who were imbued with the ideas of Greek philosophy — by Justin at Rome, and Aristides at Athens; while, at Alexandria, Clement and Origen enjoyed the highest repute. These men regarded philosophy as a means of guiding reason to faith, and of defending that faith against the attacks of paganism. Others again, like TertuUian, condemned [jhilosophy outright as some- thing with which the Christian could have nothing to do. In regard to the pagan classics the conflict of opinion was even sharper. Some of the greatest theo- logians and Fathers, like St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazi- anzen, and St. Gregory of Nyssa, had studied the classics under pagan masters and were therefore in favour of sending Christian youths to non-Christian schools on the ground that literary studies would en- able them tlie better to defend their religion. At the same time these Fathers would not permit a Christian
to teach in such schools lest he should be obliged to
take part in idolatrous practices. TertuUian (de Ido-
lolatria, c. x) insists on the same distinction: the
teacher, he says, by reason of his authority, becomes
in a way the " catechist of demons ' ' ; the pupil, imbued
with Christian faith, profits by the letter of classical
instruction, but rejects its false doctrine and holds
aloof from the superstitious practices which the
teacher can hardly avoid. Such a disthiction was nat-
lu'ally the source of difficulties and ga-ve rise to much
discussion. The situation was not remedied by the
edict of Julian the Apostate, forbidding the Christians
to teach; though this called forth some protests and
suggested the creation of a Christian literature based
on classical models of style, nothing decisive resulted.
On the other hand, fear of the corrupting influence of
pagan literature had more and more alienated Chris-
tians from such studies ; and it is not surprising to find
among the opponents of the classics such men as St.
John Chrysostom, St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, and St.
Augustine. Though they had received a thorough
classical education, and though they appreciated fully
the worth of the pagan authors, their final attitude
was adverse to the study of pagan literature. Apart
from many controverted points in this subject, it is
clear that the Fathers, at a time when the environ-
ment of the Church was still pagan, were far more
anxious for the purity of faith and morals than for the
cultivation of literature. In later ages, as the danger
of contamination grew less, classical studies were re-
\'ived and encouraged by the Church; but their value
has more than once been questioned (see Lalanne, In-
fluence des Peres de I'Eglise sur I'l^ducation publique,
Paris, 1850).
IMeanwhile the work of education was not neglected. If the Empire gave way before barbarian invasion, the Church found a new field of activity among the vigor- ous races of the North. To these she brought not only Christianity and civilization, but also the best ele- ments of classical culture. Through her missionaries she became the teacher of Germany and France, of England and Ireland. The task was a difficult one, and its accomplishment was marked by many vicissi- tudes of temporary failure and hard-won success. At times, indeed, it would seem that the desire for learn- ing had c^uite disappeared even among those for whom the acquisition of knowledge was a sacred obligation. Yet these drawbacks only served to stimulate the zeal of ecclesiastical and ci\Tl rulers in behalf of a more thorough and systematic education. Thus the salient feature of the Middle Ages is the co-operation of Church and State for the development of schools. Theodoric in Italy, Alfred in England, and Charle- magne in the Prankish Kingdom are illustrious exam- ples of princes who joined their authority with that of bishops and councils to secure adequate instruction for clergy and people. Among churchmen it suffices to mention Chrodegang of Metz, Alcuin, St. Bede, Boethius, and Cassiodorus (see the several articles). As a result of their efTorts, eilucation was provided for the clergy in the cathedral schools uinler the direct supervision of the bishop and for the laity in parochial schools to which all had access. In the curriculum, religion held the first place; other subjects were few and elementary, comprising at best the trifiu/n and quudrimum (see Arts, The Seven Liberal). But the significance of this education lies not so much in its content as in the fact that it was the means of arous- ing a love of learning among peoples that had just emerged from barbarism, and of laying the founda- tions of Western culture and science. The history of education records no g;reater undertaking; for the task was not one of improving or perfecting, but of creating, and had not the Church gone vigorously about her work, modern civilization would have been retarded for centuries. (See Schools; Middle Ages.)
One of the chief factors in this progress was monas-
