DIRECTION
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DIRECTION
Thompson, Handbook of Greek and Latin PalwograpKy (Lon-
don, 1894), 19; GoRl, Thesaurus veterum diptychorum (Florence,
1795): MoLiNiER, Histoire generate des arts appliques a I'indus-
Irie (Paris. 1896), I; Venturi, Storia detV arte Itatiana (Rome,
1901). I, 356, 484; Graeven, Fruhchristliche und mittelatterliche
Elfenbeinwerke (Rome, 1898 ); WESTWqOD,_A Descriptive
Catalogue of the Fictile Ivories in the South Kensington Museum (London, 1896); Meyer, Abhandl. der philos. philol. Classe der bai/erischen Akademie, XV, I. 4; D.iremberg and Saolio, Dic- tionnaire dcs antigtiites grecgucs et romaines (Paris, 1892), II, 1, 271; Kraus, Real-Enctjklopddie der chrisflichen Alterthiimer (Freiburg im Br.. 1896). I, 499; Leclercc, Manuel d'archeo- logie chretienne (Pari.s. 1907). II, 334; Molinier, Les obituaires fran^ais (Paris, 1890), 4; Duchesne. Origines du culte chrctien (Paris, 1902); Cabrol, Diet, de lit. et d'arch chret., s. v.
R. Maere.
Direction, Spibitual. — In the technical sense of
the term, spiritual direction is that function of the
sacred ministry by which the Church guides the faith-
ful to the attainment of eternal happiness. It is part
of the commission given to her in the words of Christ:
" Going, therefore, teach ye all nations . . . teach-
ing them to observe all things whatsoever I have com-
manded you" (Matt., xxviii, 19 sq.). She exercises
this function both in her public teaching, whether in
word or writing, and in the private guidance of souls
according to their individual needs; but it is the pri-
vate guidance that is generally understood by the term
"spiritual direction".
I. In one way the Church requires all her adult members to submit to such private direction, namely, in the Sacrament of Penance. For she entrusts to her priests in the confessional, not only the part of judge to absolve or retain the sins presently confessed, but also the part of a director of consciences. In the latter capacity he must instruct his penitents if ignorant of their duties, point out the wrong or the danger in their conduct, and suggest the proper means to be employed for amendment or improvement. The penitent, on his part, must submit to this guidance. He must also, in cases of serious doubt regarding the lawfulness of his action, ask the advice of his director. For a person who acts in a practical doubt, not knowing whether he is offending t!od or not, and yet consenting to do what he thinks to be morally wrong, thereby offends his Creator. Such consultation is the more necessary as no one is a good judge in his own cause: a business man is sometimes blind to the injustice of a tempting bargain, and passion often invents motives for imlaw- ful indulgence.
II. Still more frequently is spiritual direction re- quired in the lives of Christians who aim at the attain- ment of perfection (see Perfection). All religious are obliged to do so by their profession ; and many of the faithful, married and unmarried, who live amidst worldly cares aspire to such perfection as is attainable in their states of life. This striving after Christian per- fection means the cultivation of certain virtues and watchfulness against faults and spiritual dangers. The knowledge of this constitutes the science of asceticism (q. v.). The spiritual director must be well versed in this difficult science, as his advice is very necessary for such souls. For, as Cassian writes, "by no vice does the devil draw a monk headlong and bring him to death sooner than by persuading him to neglect the counsel of the Elders and trust to his own judgment and determination" (Conf. of Abbot Moses).
III. Since, in teaching the Faith, the Holy Ghost speaks through the sovereign pontiff and the bishops of the Church, the work of the private spiritual di- rector must never be at variance with this infallible guidance. Therefore the Church has condemned the doctrine of Molinos, who taught that directors are independent of the bishops, that the Church does not judge about secret mutters, and that God and the director alone enter into the inner conscience (Den- zinger, Enchiridion, nos. 11.52, 1153). Several of the most learned Fathers of the Church devoted much attention to spiritual direction, for instance, St. Jer-
ome, who directed St. Paula and her daughter St.
Eustochium; and some of them have left us learned
treatises on a.scetic theology. But while the hierarchy
of the Church is Divinely appointed to guard the
purity of faith and morals, the Holy Spirit, who
" breatheth where he will ; and thou hearest his voice,
but thou knowest not whence he cometh, and whither
he goeth" (John, iii, 8), has often chosen priests or
religious, and even simple laymen and women, and
filled them with supernatural wisdom in order to pro-
vide for the spiritual direction of others.
IV. Whoever the director be, he will find the prin- cipal means of progress towards perfection to consist in the exercise of prayer (q. v.) and mortification (q. v.). But upon the special processes of these two means, spiritual guides have been led by the Holy Spirit in various directions. Different is the type for the solitary in the desert, the cenobite in the commu- nity, for a St. Louis or a Blanche of C^astile in a palace, St. Frances of Rome in her family, or a St. Zita in her kitchen, for contemplative and for active religious orders and congregations. Another marked difference in the direction of souls arises from the presence or absence of the mystical element in the life of the per- son to be directed (see Mysticism). Mysticism in- volves pecuMar modes of action by which the Holy Ghost illumines a soiJ in ways which transcend the normal use of the reasoning powers. The spiritual director who has such persons in charge needs the soundest learning and consummate prudence. Here especially sad mistakes have been made by presump- tion and imprudent zeal, for men of distinction in the Church have gone astray in this matter.
V. Even in ordinary cases of spiritual direction in which no mysticism is involved, numerous errors must be guarded against; the following deserve special no- tice: (1) The false principles of the Jansenists, who demanded of their penitents an unattainable degree of purity of conscience before they allowed them to re- ceive Holy Comniimion. Many priests, not members of the sect, were yet so far tainted with its severity as gradually to alienate large numbers of their penitents from the sacraments and consequently from the Church. (2) The condemned propositions summarized under the headings " De perfectione Christiana" in Denzinger's "Enchiridion Symbolorum et Defini- tionum" (Wiirzburg, 1900), page 485, which are largely the principles of Quietism. These are speci- mens: To obtain perfection a man ought to deaden all his faculties; he should take no vows, should avoid external work, ask God for nothing in particular, not seek sensible devotion, not study science, not con- sider rewards and pmiishments, not employ reasoning in prayer. (3) The errors and dangers pointed out in the Encyclical of Leo XIII, "Testem Benevolen- tise". In it the pope singles out for particular con- demnation: "First, all external guidance is set aside for those souls which are striving after Christian per- fection as being superfluous, or indeed not useful in any sense, the contention being that the Holy Spirit pours richer and more abundant graces into the soul than formerly; so that, without human intervention. He teaches and guides them by some hidden instinct of His own." In the same document warnings are given against inculcating an exaggerated esteem of the natural virtues, thus depreciating the super- natural ones; also against casting contempt on relig- ious vows, " as if these were alien to the spirit of our times, in that they restrict the bounds of human liberty, and that they are more suitable to weak than to strong minds".
VI. An important document of Leo XIII bearing specifically on the direction of religious souls is the decree "Quemadmodum" of 1890. It forbids all relig- ious superiors who are not priests "the practice of thoroughly inquiring into the state of their subjects' consciences, which is a thing exclusively reserved to
