DOCTOR
73
DOCTOR
fessors of theology as masters; but in the course of
time the former title was given to all the superior fac-
ulties, and the latter was reserved for grammar and
arts. In Germany, doctor and magistcr were inter-
changeable (Kaufmann, "Geschichte" etc., II, 208
sqq.), and though the mastership is no longer con-
ferred as a separate degree, a trace of the medieval
practice is still found in the diploma which styles its
recipient " Doctor of Philosophy and Master of Arts".
Bologna at first conferred only the doctorate, but Paris and the English universities very soon intro- duced the preparatory degrees of baccalaureate and licentiate. Later, it is true, the licentiate was granted in the Italian university also at the first examination (privata) ; but this merely implied permission to pro- ceed to the second, more formal, examination {pub- lica) in which the licentia docendi was given. At Paris, the licentiate meant a real authorization to teach, besides being a pre-requisite for admission to the final examination (inceptio) at which the doctorate was conferred. There was a corresponding difference in the length of the course for the degree. Bologna required six years of study for the doctorate in canon law, and seven or eight for the doctorate in civil law; the student might begin his course at the age of four- teen and become a doctor at twenty or twenty-one. At Paris the statutes drawn up in 1215 by the Cardinal Legate Robert de Courgon provided that no one should lecture in theology as a master unless he was thirty-five years of age, had studied for eight years, and taken a five-years' course in theology. According to Denifle (Universitiiten, 100-102), the eight years meant three years in arts and five years in theology. (Cf. Rashdall, "Universities", I, 462 sqq.) At Ox- ford, candidates who had already taken the M.A. de- gree were required to study theology seven years more for the licentiate. In medicine, M.A. candidates had a six-years' course for the doctorate. For the sub- jects required in these courses see University. (Cf . Rashdall, op. cit., II, 452 sq.)
In regard to examinations there seems to have been considerable leniency: at times they were reduced to mere formalities, at other times they were dispensed with. The degree was awarded by the chancellor on the advice of the regent masters of the faculty as to the candidate's fitness. The ceremony of inception was conducted by a regent; it consisted in the tradi- tion of the book and ring, the imposition of the biretta, and the kiss of fellowship. At Paris, however, the de- gree in theology was conferred by the chancellor him- self, who placed the biretta upon the candidate's head with the words, " Incipiatis in nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sanoti. Amen." Then followed a disputa- tion (aulica) in which the chancellor, the masters, and one of the bachelors took part. It was customary also to hold, on the evening before inception, an elaborate disputation known as vesperim (see, for details, " Char- tularium", II, App., p. 693).
Among the various doctorates, that in theology ranked first. It was no uncommon thing for those who had received the degree in the other faculties to take additional courses for the S. T. D. In the Ger- man universities, for instance, licentiates in law or medicine might become bachelors in theology after five years of theological study; they would then be obliged to pursue the course prescribefl for the other candidates. Conversely, theologians were sometimes permitted to follow courses in civil law and medicine. This privilege was granted to Bologna by Clement V (10 March, 1310) for a period of ten years but it ap- plied only to ecclesiastical persons other than priests, religious, and bishops elect. It was renewed twice by John XXII (1317 and 1330) ; but when the university (1.343-44) petitioned for an indefinite extension of the privilege, Clement VI refused. Innocent VI, how- ever, renewed it (30 June, 1360) for ten years (Denifle, op. cit., 209)
The chief significance of the doctorate lay in the fact
that it authorized the recipient to teach everywhere
without undergoing further examination — pis ubique
docendi. This prerogative developed gradually out of
the licentia docendi which the degree itself implied, i. e.
the right to teach in the university which conferred
the doctorate. But as the older universities, Bologna,
Paris, and Oxford, grew in importance and attracted
students from all parts, the idea naturally spread that
their graduates had the right to teach everywhere
Subsequently, this authorization was expressly
granted to newlv founded universities: by Gregory
IX to Toulouse ('l233), and by Alexander IV to Sala-
manca (1255). It was long, however, before the uni-
versities came to a mutual recognition of their degrees.
Paris held tenaciously to its rights; Oxford was more
liberal, but would not permit a Parisian doctor to
teach merely on the strength of his degree. The doc-
tors themselves were not always anxious to exercise
their prerogative; the teaching devolved in large
measure upon the bachelors, and the masters were
classified as regents (those who taught) and as non-
regents, who were content with the prestige implied by
their degree or were eager for other occupations.
The essential meaning of the doctorate as fixed by the medieval universities is preserved in modern aca- demic usage; the degree implies a qualification to teach. It has, however, undergone various modifica- tions which are due partly to the development of the sciences and partly to changes in educational theory and practice. The degree. Doctor of Laws, is often conferred as an honorary title. The doctorate in the- ology, or divinity, has been retained by Catholic insti- tutions as a degree to be given either after a course of study and an examination or as a distinction (honoris causa) ; while the tendency among non-Catholic uni- versities is to confer it only as an honorary degree. Of late the doctorate in philosophy has attained great importance, and its value has been enhanced as th.e result of stricter requirements. For this and for the other doctorates, research is now generally considered the principal qualification, and in consequence the candidate's work is becoming more specialized.
The influence of the Holy See, in regard to the doc- torate, especially in theology, has been exerted in various ways, e. g. by authorizing universities to con- fer the degree, by prescribing through papal legates the conditions for obtaining it, and by correcting abuses, notably laxity of refjuirements, which crept in from time to time. The historical details will be found in the article University. Legislation con- cerning the ecclesiastical side of the subject may be summarized as follows: —
1. The power of creating doctors belongs to the pope; but he may, and often does, delegate it to uni- versities, seminaries, and other institutions of learn- ing. Charters granted by civil authority are valid; but to obtain canonical recognition, doctorates in theology and canon law must be conferred in virtue of pontifical authorization.
2. The candidate for the degree must be a baptized Christian and must subscribe to the profession of faith formulated by Pius IV. As a rule, only priests receive the doctorate in theology and canon law. It is not, however, necessary that the recipient should be in Sacred orders. Laymen as well as priests are allowed to appear as advocates before the Roman tribunals (Rota, Signatura) and they are required to have the doctorate at least in canon law (Const. " Sapienti con- silio", 29 June, 190S).
3. The doctoral biretta, or four-cornered cap, may be worn on academic occasions, but not in choir (Cong. of Rites, " In Venusina", 1S44, and reply to the Arch- bishop of Santiago de Chile, 6 Sept., 1895); the ring may be worn at all times except at Mass and other ec- clesiastical functions (Cong, of Rites, 12 Feb., 1892).
4. The Council of Trent (Se.ss. XXII, c. ii, "de
