FRIARS
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FRIARS
successors — Paul of Soncino (1520-23), who died in
1523, and Francisco de Angelis Quinones (1523-28),
a Spaniard, diligently devoted themselves to estab-
lishing the Observance on a firm basis. Quinones was
named cardinal in 1528, and the new general, Paolo
Pisotti (1529-33), unfortunately disregarding the
ideal of his predecessors and failing entirely to grasp
the significance of the reforms afoot at the time (for
example that of the Capuchins), was deposed in 1533.
In 1547 the Chapter of Assisi prescribed grey as the
colour of the Franciscan habit, in accordance with
the custom of the Observants, and forbade the wear-
ing of beards. At the General Chapter of Salamanca
(1554), Clemente Dolera of Moneglia, the general in
office, promulgated new statutes for the cismontane
family. On the preferment of Clemente to the
cardinalate in 1557, Francesco Zamora, his successor
(1559-65), defended at the Council of Trent the
order's rule of poverty, which was then sanctioned by
the council for the Observants and Capuchins. Under
Luigi Pozzo (Puteus), the next general (1565-71), the
Spanish Conventuals were united with the Observants
by command of the pope, and a general reunion of the
separated branches of the order seemed imminent.
The two succeeding generals, Christophe de Cheffon-
taines, a Frenchman (1571-79), and Francisco Gon-
zaga (1579-87) . laljoured industriously for the rigorous
observance and the rule of poverty, which was rather
loosely interpreted, especially in France. Gonzaga
reformed the great convent of studies at Paris and,
in 1581, was appointed, in opposition to his wishes.
Bishop of Cefalu (Sicily) and afterwards of Mantua,
where he died in the odour of sanctity, in 1620. The
process for his beatification is pending at Rome.
Francis of Toulouse (1587-93) and Bonaventura
Secusi of Caltagirone (Sicily, 1593-1600) were em-
ployed frequently on embassies by the popes, and
revised the constitutions of the order, in which, how-
ever, the alterations were too frequent. Finally at
the Chapter of Segovia in 1621, the minister general,
Benignus of Genoa (1618-25), approved the "Statuta
Segoviensia" for the ultramontane family, with
suitable additions both for the French and for the
German-Belgian nation. Thereafter the latter nation
adhered most perseveringly to the principles of these
statutes; that their consistency in this respect has
proved a source of prosperity, vigour, and inner
strength is universally known.
About this period the so-called Counter-Reforma- tion was bursting into vigorous life in the North, and the order entered on a new period of strenuous vitality. The Reformation had dealt a terrible blow to the Franciscans in these parts, annihilating in many instances entire provinces. Supported now by the emperor and the Catholic princes, they advanced to regain their old position and to found new cloisters, from which they could minister to their flocks. To bring into subjection the four rather lax French provinces which were known as the Proinncia: con- jaderakc. and were thenceforward always too much inclined to shelter themselves behind the government, the general, Bernardine of Sena (Portugal, 1625-33), obtained from Urban VIII the Bull of 1 October, 1625. The French, indeed, justly complained that the general of the order was always chosen from Italy or from Spain, The privilege usurped by the Spanish kings, of exertingaccrtain influence in the election and indeed securing that the general should be alternately a Spaniard and an Italian (but one from the Crown lands of Spain), was in contradiction to all Franci.scan statutes and laws. The Spanish generals, further- more, residi'd usually at Madrid, instead of at Rome, and most of the higher oliiees were occupied by Span- iards —an aiiomaliius situation which aroused great resentment amongst the friars of other nations, especially France and in Italy, and continued until 1834. This introduction of national politics into the
government of the order proved as noxious to the
interests of the Friars Minor as the established
churches of the eighteenth century did to the cause of
Christianity.
Generals Juan Merinero of Madrid (1639^5), Giovanni Mazzara of Naples (1645-48), and Pedro Manero (1651-55) tried without success to give defi- nite statutes to the cismontane family, while the "Con- st it utiones Sambucana;", drawn up by General Michele Buongiorno of Sambuca (1658-64) at the order of the general chapter, did not remain long in force. Ildefonso Salizanes (1664-70) and Francesco Maria Rhini (1670-74) were both raised to the episco- pate. Jos6 Ximenes Samaniego (1676-82) zealously eradicated abuses which had crept into the order, especially in Spain and France, and died as Bishop of Placencia in Spain (1692). Ildefonso Biezma (1702- 16) and Jose Garcia (1717-23) were appointed by papal Briefs. The next general was the famous Lorenzo Cozza (1723-27) who, as Custos of the Holy Land, had obviated a schism of the Maronites. He was created cardinal by Benedict XIII. At the Chap- ter of Milan (1729), Juan Soto was elected general (1729-36), and during his period of office had the statutes of the order collected, rearranged, and then published in 1734. Raffaello de Rossi (1744-50) gave the province (otherwise known as the custody) of the Holy Land its definitive constitution. From 1700 to 1723 no general chapter could be held in consequence of the continuous state of unrest caused by the wars and other dissensions. These disputes made their appearance even in the order itself, and were fanned to a flame by the rivalry between the nations and between the different reform branches, the most heated contention being between the Observants and the Reformat!. The domestic discipline of the order thus became very slack in certain districts, although the personale of the Friars Minor was at this time unusually high. Benedict XIII vainly endeavoured in 1727 to cementaunion between the various branches (Observants, Reformati, Recollects, and Discalced). The general chapter of 1750, at which Benedict XIV presided and warmly praised the order, elected Pedro Joannetio of Molina (1750-56) — the only Discalced who has been general. Clemente Guignoni of Palermo followed (1756-62), and then Joannetio was elected general for the second time (1762-68), this occurrence being absolutely unique in the history of the order. Paschale Frosconi (1768-91) of Milan tried in vain on several occasions to hold a general chapter. During his long period of office, the Spaniards endeavoured to break away from the order (1774), and the evil effects of Gallicanism and Febronianism were being already universally felt, kings and princes suppressing many of the cloisters or forbidding intercourse with Rome. In 1766 Louis XV established in France the Com- mission des liiguliers, which, presitled over by Cardinal de Brienne and conducted with the greatest perfidy, brought about in 1771 a union between the Conven- tuals and the French Observants. The former had but three provinces with forty-eight monasteries, while the latter had seven provinces and 287 monas- teries. The French Observants, however, were al- ways somewhat inclined towards laxity, particularly in regard to the rule of poverty, and had obtained in 1673 and 1745 a papal Brief, which allowed them to retain real estate and vested incomes. The French Revolution brought about the annihilation of the order in France.
In Bavaria (17()9) and many other German princi- palities, .sjiiritual and .secular, the order was suppressed, but nowiiere more thoroughly than in the Austrian and Belgian sl.itcs of .losepli II and in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (17SS) tlien ruled by Fcnhiiand IV. On thedeatli of Pasc|uale (1791) I'ius \'l appointed as general a Spaniard, .loachiin Company (1792 1M)6). In 1804, the Spanish Franciscans effected, with the
