HANXLEDEN
131
HAPPINESS
surrexit et crevit"; also a memorandum book, a
valuable contribution to Austrian history. His
knowledge of numismatics was displayed in an excel-
lent book of instructions for amateur collectors, en-
titled " Exercitationes faciles de nummis veterum"
(Nuremberg and Vienna, 1753). The glory to which
Hanthaler is undoubtedly entitled for these works is
considerably dimmed by the fact that, led astray by
ambition, he endeavoured to palm off in his "Fasti"
four chronicles that he himself had written as newly-
discovered ancient sources of the history of the Baben-
bergs. These are the " Ortilonis de Lilienfeld Liber de
e.xordio Campililii", "Notulae anecdota; e chronica
stirpis Babenbergicaj, quam Aloldus de Peklarn capel-
lanus conscripsit, excerpta;"; "Chronicon Ricardi
canonici Newnburgensis ", and "Chronicon Fridrici
bellicosi" of the Dominican Pernold.
Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, X, .547; Zeissberg. Das Tolcnbuch des Ciiterzimscrstiftes Lilimleld (Vienna, 18791; Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquetlen, II (1S94), 496.
Patricius Schlager.
Kanxleden, Johann Ernst, Jesuit missionary in the East Indies; b. at Ostercappeln, near Osnabriick, in Hanover, 1681; d. in Malabar, 20 March, 1732. He volunteered for the East India mission while a young student, and went through his novitiate on the journey thither. He started from Augsburg on 8 December, 1699, in the company of Fathers Weber and Mayer and a German barber named Johann Kaspar Schil- linger. They proceeded across Italy, through Tur- key, Asia Minor, Syria, Armenia, and Persia to Bender-Al)bas on the Gulf of Persia where they took ship to Surat. Both the Fathers died on the voyage. Hanxleden and a lay brother set foot in India alone on 13 December, 1700, and settled in Goa Major. Thenceforth, for more than thirty years, he laboured on the coast of Malabar, and died wdiile professor in the seminary of the Christians of St. Thomas. Es- teemed for virtue and erudition, he was mourned greatly. The heathen ruler of the country declared that the Paulists (as the Jesuits were then called in India) had lost in lum a great man and a pillar of their religion.
To Hanxleden and his colleague, Heinrich Roth, belongs the credit of having been the pioneers among Europeans in the study of Sansla-it. He was the first European to write a Sanskrit grammar, ami also the first to compile a Malabar-Sanskrit-Portuguese lexi- con. The Carmelite Paulinus a Sancto Bartholomajo brought back Hanxledcn's manuscript Sanskrit grammar to Rome and made use of j^art of it; he pronounced him the licst Sanskrit scholar of his time. His Sanskrit works would probably have created a great stir among scholars had they been published immediately after their completion, and Schlegel and Max Mailer speak of them in the highest terms. Hanxleden compiled a "Dictionarium samscredam- ico-lusitanum", with the assistance of the two Jesuits, Anton Pimentel and Bernhard Bischopinck (of Borken in Westphalia). He left also a "Grammatica raalaljarico-lusitana " and a long list of religious poems in the Malaliar tongue, a life of Christ, .songs on the end of all things, on St. Genevieve, the Mater Dolorosa, etc. Many of liis songs were still sung on the Malabar coast in the time of the aforesaid Paulmus.
ScuiLLr^r.ER, Ost-Indianische Reise-Beachreibung (Nurem- berg, 1707), epitomized in Stocklein, Der Neue Wdl-Bolt (Augs- burg, 1/26), no, 93; ibidem, no. 601; Platzweo, Lebens- bUder dculscher JesuUen (Paderbom, 1S22), 54: Paulinu.s a S. Bartholom.eo, Eiamen Instoriro-crilicum codicum indicorum bibUolh. sacra conprcg. de prop, fide (Rome, 1792), 51, 55, 76; Idem, [ndia onenlnhs chrisliana (Rome, 1794). 191; IltlONDER, IJeutsche Jesuilenmissionare (Freiburg im Br., 1S99), 48, 89, ■ t> U-^HLMANN, Die Sprachkunde u. die Missioned (Freiburg 1?^ yd l?^'>' .1* ^l'^-' manuscriot letters in the librarv- of the tcole bt-Genevi!^ve at Paris; cf. Somjiervogel, Bihliotheque de
!?.■,,. ■',«"»■ s. v.; Benfey. Geschichte der Sprachwissen- achaft (iMunieh, 1869), 3.35 sq. and 352; von Schlegel, Ucber aiekpmche und Weisheit der /nrfer (Heidelberg, ISOS), preface All; Idem. Snmtlirhe Werke (Vienna, 1846), VIII, 277- Max ■Duller, Vurlcsungen uber die Wissenachaft der Sprachm (2nd
cd., Leipzig, 1866), I, 429; Gildemeister, Bibliotheca San-
akrihca awe Tecenaus librorum Sanskritorum hucusgue typia vel
lapide exscriptorum critici specimen, I (Bonn. 1847).
A. HUONDER.
Happiness (Fr. bonhcur; Germ. Gliick; Lat. feli- cila.'i; dr. evrvxla, ev5a.i/wvla) . — The primary meaning of this term in all the leading European languages seems to involve the notion of good fortune, good chance, good happening; but from a very early date m the history of Greek philosophy the conception became the centre of keen speculation and dispute. What is happiness? What are its constituents? What are the causes and conditions of happiness? How, if at all, does it differ from pleasure? What are Its relations to man's intellect, to his will, to his life as a whole? What is its position in a general theory of the imiverse? These are questions which have much occupied the various schools of philosophy and, indeed, have exercised men who would not be will- ingly accused of philosophizing. For happiness is necessarily amongst the most profoundly interesting subjects for all of us. With the Greeks interest in the problem w'as mainly ethical, the psychology of happi- ness being ancillary; whereas for several modern schools of philosophjr psychology is deemed the key to niany of the most important queries respecting this familiar yet enigmatic conception.
Dismissing the view that happiness was a lot arbi- trarily bestowed by capricious Fortune, the more serious thinkers among the Greeks regarded it as a gift of the gods. Further reflection led to the view that it was given as a reward for goodness of life. Hence the acquisition of happiness depends on the working out of the good for man in man's life. What then is the good? For Socrates it is einpa^la, which receives closer definition at the hands of Plato, as such harmonious functioning of the parts of man's soul as shall preserve the subordination of the lower to the higher, of the non-rational to the rational. In this view Iwppiness becomes for Plato less the reward than the ine^'italile concomitant of such harmony. It is the property of the whole soul; and the demand of any element of the soul for preferential treatment in the matter of happiness Plato would thus look upon as unreasonable. In .setting happiness as the intrin- sic result of a policy of "following nature", the Stoics and the Cyrenaics were in verbal agreement" w^h Plato, though diverging to opposite poles in their answer to the psychological question as to the con- stituents of happiness. "Follow Nature", for the Cyrenaics, meant: "Gratify the sensuous faculties which are the voices of nature. " For the Stoics it signified: "Satisfy your reason which nature bids us to exalt by the entire suppression of our sensuous appetites. " Happiness is for these latter the conse- quence of the virtuous life which issues in spiritual freedom and peace.
In Aristotle's ethical system, happiness, as ex- pressed hy evSai/iopla, is the central idea. He agrees with Plato in rejecting the exaggerated opposition set up between reason and nature by the Sophists, and fundamental to both the Stoic and Epicurean schools. For Aristotle, nature is human nature as a whole. This is both rational and sensuous. His treatment of happiness is in closer contact with ex- perience than that of Plato. The good with which he concerns himself is that which it is possible for man to reach in this life. This highest good is happiness. This must be the true purpose of life; for we seek it in all our actions. But in what does it consist? Not in mere passive enjoyment, for this is open to the brute, but in action (Mpyeia), of the kind that is proper to man in contrast with other animals. This is intellectual action. Not all kinds of intellectual action, however, result in happiness, but only virtuous action, that is, action which springs from virtue and is according to its laws; for this alone is appropriate
