HESSELS
300
HESSELS
ments, the Grand Duchy of Hesse founded the new
Bishopric of Mainz, which was made subject to the
Archbishopric of Freiburg. Although the organic
decrees of ISO:; had created a kind of national Church,
they were only partially carried out, and the position
of the t'athohc Church was here more favourable than
in the other states of the ecclesiastical province of the
Upper Rhine (c. g. in Baden). Under Louis III
(1848-77), who l)egan to rule during the lifetime of
his father Louis II (1830-48), conditions were at first
favourable to the CathoUcs. In 1854 Bishop Ketteler
concluded with the Minister von Dalwigk the Con-
vention of Mainz, which ensured for the Church a
greater measure of freedom and independence, but
on the other hand made great concessions to the
State. Inconsequence of the opposition of the Es-
tates, the convention had to be withdrawn in 1866.
After the foundation of the (lerman Empire, the
Kulticrkam pf extended also to Ilesse under the Liberal
ministries of Hofmann and von Starck, that is from
1871 to 1884. The five ecclesiastical laws of 23 April,
1875, are in their KiMurkampf spirit an exact repro-
duction of the Prussian "May Laws". After the
death of Bishop Ketteler in 1877, the episcopal See of
Mainz remained vacant until 1886. It was only under
Grand Duke Louis IV (1877-92) and during the Fin-
ger ministry, that the church laws were revisefl, and
those of 1875 modified. Under Ernest Louis, who
succeeded in 1892, further changes facilitated the
admission of religious orders. (Concerning the eccle-
siastical statistics of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, who.se
boundaries coincide with those of the Bishopric of
Mainz, see Mainz.)
In Hesse-Kassel William IV (1567-92) was suc- ceeded by Moritz "the Learned" (1592-1627), during whose reign the Tliirty Years' War broke out. His son, William V (1627-37), allied himself with Gusta- vus Adolphus and was forced to retire into exile. Under William VI (1637-63) the foundation of Hers- feld and a portion of Upper Hesse were acquired by Hesse-Kassel. The succeeding rulers were Wilham VII (1663-70) and then Charles (1670-1730), whose son became King of Sweden as Frederick I in 1720, and later, during his government of Hesse (1730-51), was represented by his brother William (landgrave, 1751-60). William's son, Frederick II, reverted to the Catholic Church in 1749, but, when his conversion became known, liis father, in concert with the Estates, with Prussia, and Hanover, demanded that Frederick as landgrave should neither appoint a Catholic to a public position nor permit pulilic Catholic worship. To these demands Frederick, to preserve his right of succession, was compelled to agree. During his reign (1760-85) the abuse of selling soldiers to England reached its culmination. In North America between 15,000 and 20,000 Hessians fought for England against the colonies struggling for freedom. His son, William IX (1785-1821), in accordance with the Peace of lAm6- ville, received rich compensation (mostly in eccle- siastical territory) for Rheinfels, ceded to the French, and was granted in 1803 the title of elector. From 1806 to 1813, Hesse-Kassel belonged to the Kingdom of Westphalia, foimded by Napoleon. After the Restoration the greater part of the estates of the Abbey of Fulda was assigned to Hesse-Kassel. The Revolution of 1830 compelled William II (1S21-47) to give the land a constitution which ensured to every citizen complete liberty of conscience and freedom to practise his religion. The status of Catholics was regulated by the erection of the ecclesiastical province of the Upper Rhine, when Electoral Hesse was placed under the Bishopric of Fulda. The profligacy of William II. the tyrannical rule of his son Frederick William I (1847-66), and the suppres.sion of all politi- cal freedom caused an estrangement between princes and people. In the conflict l)etween Prussia and Austria in 1866, when the elector, after a period of
neutrality, voted against Prussia at the German Diet
and ordered the mobilization of his troops, his terri-
tories were occupied by the Pru.ssian army, and united
with Prussia on 20 September, 1866, since which date
they have shared the destiny of Prussia. It now
forms with other territories ae(|uired by Pru.ssia in
1866 (the Duchy of Nassau, the Lanilgraviate of
Hesse-Homburg, F>ankfort-on-the-Main, etc.) the
Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. The CathoHcs
of the govcrmnent district of Kassel and those of
Bockenheim, one of the wards of the city of Frankfort,
belong to the Diocese of Fulda; the remainder belong
to the Diocese of Limburg. The ecclesiastical statis-
tics will be found under these articles.
Wenck, Hessische Landesgesch. (4 vols.. 1783-1803): Rom- mel, Gesch. von Hessen (10 vols., Gotha and Kassel, 1820-58); Steiner, Gfsch. ties Grosaherzoj/fums Hessen (5 vols.. Darm- stadt, 1833-4): Rehm, Grundriss der Gesch. der fifssischen Kirche (.Marburg, 1835): Falckenheiner. Gesch. hessiacher Sltidte u. Slifler (2 vols., Kassel. 1841-42); Urhunden zur hesai- achen Landes-, Volks-, u. Familiengesch. published by Baur and continued by others in Archiv fiir hesaiache Gesch. . . . (15 vols., Darmstadt, 1846-80); Hassenkamp, Hessiache Kirchen- gesch. im Zeitalter der Reformation (2 vols.. 2nd ed.. Frankfort, 1864): JiRi CK, Die oberrheinische Kirchenprovim (Mainz. 1868); Wagner, Die vormaligen geiatlichrn Stifle im Grossherzogtum Hessen (2 vols., Darmstadt, 1873-8): Heppe, Kirchengeach. beider Hessen (2 vols., Marburg. 1876-8): Die Bau- u. Kunat- denkmaler des Grossherzogtums Hessen (6 vols.. Damistadt, 1885-98); Soldan. Gesch. des Grossherzogluma Hessen ({Jiessen. 1896): Brick. Gcach. der knthol. Kirche im 19. Jahrhundert, 11- 1\' (Mainz. 1889-1905): Rady and Raich, Gesch. der kathol. Kirche in Hessen vom hi. Bonifatius biazuderen A ufhchungdurch Phihpp den Groasmutigen. 722-1526 (Mainz, 1904): Reidei.. Die kathol. Kirche im Groasherzogtttm Hessen (Paderboni. 1904); Hessler. Hessische Landea- u. Vulkskunde (3 vols.. Marburg, 1904-07): Archiv for hessiache Gesch. u. AUertumskunde {A2 \'6\a.t Darmstadt, 1835-1908): Grotefend. /?(ffcs(cn der Landgrafen von Hessen (Marburg. 1909 — ). JcsEPH LiNS.
Hessels, Jean, a distinguished theologian of Lou- vain; b. 1.522; d. 1566. lie had been teaching for eight years in Pare, the Dominican house near Lou- vain, when he was appointetl professor of theology at the university. Like Baius, who was his senior col- league, Hessels preferred drawing his theology from the Fathers, especiallj' from Augustine, rather than from the Schoolmen, without, however, ever swerv- ing from traditional doctrine. In 1559 lie accom- panied the elder Jansen (hiter Bishop of (ihent, d. 1576) and Baius to Trent and took an active part in the council, e. g. he prepared the decree " De invoca- tione et reliqtiiis sanctorum et sacris imaginibus". Even at Trent the Scholastic parly found fault with his departure from the beaten tracks of learning; after his return the attacks continued. Hessels, however, used his energy against the Protestants instead of wasting it in dogmatic quarrels. He upheld the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception (impugned by Baius), and he is a protagonist of papal infallibility in his "De perpetuitate Cathedra^ Petri et ejus indefectibilitate", which is an appendix to his polemical work "Confutatio novitiae fidei quam spe- cialem vocant. adv. .Johannem Monhemium" (Lou- vain, l.')65) His other polemical works are: " De in- vocatione .sanctorum . . . censura" (1568); " Probatio corporalis pra'-sentia" corporis et sanguinis doniinici in Eucharisfia (Cologne, 1563); "Confutatio confe-ssionis haereticip, teutonice emissa;, qua ostenditur Chris- tum esse sacrificium propitiatorium" (Louvain, 1565): " Oratio de officio pii viri exsurgente et vigente hseresi" (Louvain, 1.565); "Declaratio quod sumptio Eucharistia" .sub unica panis specie neque Christ i pra'- cepto aut institutioni adversetur" (Louvain). He also wrote commentaries: "De Passione Domini" (Louvain, 1.56S); "de I Tim. et I Petri" (Louvain, 1568); "Com. de Evang. Mattha>i" (Louvain, 1572); "Com. de Epp. Johannis" (Douai, 1601). His chief dogmatic work is an excellent " Catechism ", first pub- lished in 1571, by Henry Gra\'ius, who removed from it all traces of Baianism. Hessels is not a brilliant writer, but his judgment is accurate and all his work most conscientious. J. Wilhelm.
