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dogma and speculation. In that way he hit upon a
convenient creed for those Gnostic adepts who had
departed from CathoUc Christianity and classical
Gnosticism. His negations alone formed their bond
of fellowship. His scriptural canon and his rule of
Faith served to unite his followers, not through any
positive belief l)ut by the denial of Catholic (and
Gnostic) principles. He seems indeed to have had a
talent for organization; the historian, however, has
to look on his work not as a new creation, but as a
mutilation of that which had long been in existence.
Our remarks on Gnosticism apply, mutatis mutandis,
in a far greater degree to Montanism. The organiza-
tion of Montanism was not a remnant of early Chris-
tianity, l)Ut an artificial revival of primitive customs,
(of. D'Ales, "La thiJologie de Tertullien", 201 sq.;
and Batiffol, " L'^glise naissante et le catholicisme",
317 sq.).
IV. Detailed Evidence from Pagan Inscrip- tions, Papyri, and Ostraka. — We intend here merely to point out certain contemporary expressions for profane and sacred offices which may shed some light on the constitution of primitive Christianity. A. In the negative sense it is interesting to note that certain expressions, which were then in very general use for different kinds of governing officials were not adopted by the Christians, such as epistates (iTrurrdT-qs) and epimeletes (firi/ieXijr^s). For servants, in the religious sense, lifipereles (inr-qpiT-qi) was used more frequently than diakonos [cf. Thieme, "Die Inschrif- ten von Magnesia am Maander und das neue Test." (Borna-Leipzig, 1905), 33]. — B. Positive parallelisms. — (1) ' Aj'tIXtji/'is ( =assistance), with a religious implica- tion, is found, besides in I Cor., xii, 28, in the Septua- gint and on papyri [cf. Deissmann, " Bibelstudien' (Marburg, 189.5), 87; and "Neue Bibelstudien" (1897), 51]. (2) kpxi-TrolijLriv (=chief shepherd) of I Peter, v, 4, is found on a mummy label [cf. Deis.smann, "Licht vom Osten" (Tubingen, 1908), p. 64]. {^,i)Diakonns\n a religious sense is found in an inscription, from Magnesia on the Meander, of about 100 b. c. (O. Kern, "Die Inschriften am Maander", p. 109). The same is found frequently in other places (cf. Thieme, op. cit., 17 sq.), for instance mention is made of a college of deacons with a priest (Uptm) at their head for the worship of Serapis and Isis (cf. Corpus Inscr. Graeo. II, 1800 and 3037). (4) Episkopos in a religious sen.se: cf. remarks above and Daremberg-Saglio, "Diction- naire des Antiquites" under episkopos. This article is unfortunately not satisfactory, whereas the articles epimeletes and epistates are excellent. (5) Liturgy (\eiTvpyos, \riTvpy^ui, &c.) in a religious sense is found at Magnesia (Kern, ib 98, 17 and 98, 58; Thieme, ibid., 16; Deissmann, "Bibelstudien", 137 sq.). (6) Ao7eIa, that is, collections of a religious character (cf. I Cor., xvi, 1 and 2) on papyri and ostraka (Wilcken, " Griech- ische Ostraka", 1, 253 ; Deissmann, " Licht vom Osten", 69 sq.; Kern, 1. c, 105, 72; Thieme, 1. c, 16 sq.). (7) Presbyter, also in a religious sense; for instance the members of a sacerdotal college in Egypt were called thus, in the middle of the second century (cf. the papyri in Deissmann, " Neue Bibelstudien", 60 sq.). (8) Prophets. They formed a class of the superior priesthood in Egypt (cf . Krelis, " Zeitschrift fur tegypt Sprache und Alterumskunde", xxxi, 36). Prophet- priests are also found in Miletus [cf. Thieme, I. c, 19; cf . also R. Cagnat, " Inscriptiones GrEecae", III (IParis, 1906), n. 680 and n. 1105].
V. Historical oh Quasi-historical Testimonies. — Since an exhaustive treatment is impossible, I have tried to collect at least all the typical texts.
A. Mention of Bishops by Poli/rrntes. — In a synodal letter written by Polycrates of Ephesus about the year 190 this bishop, sixty-five years of age, speaks of seven of his relatives who had been bishops before him. Besides these he mentions Polycarp and Papir- ius of Smyrna, Thraseas of Eumeaea, Sagaris of Lao-
dicea and Melito of Sardes (Eusebius, " Hist. Eccles.",
v, 24, 2 .sq.).
B. Iremiu-s's View of the Connexion unth Apostolic Times. — The famous texts of Irena'us on Apostolic succession are a testimony to the faith of the sec- ond century, rather than an example of ancient his- torical narrative. Exceptions are (a) the list of the Roman bishops (Har., iii, 3 sq.); (1)) the account of Polycarp's instalment by the Apostles (op. cit., iii, 3, 4, and Euseb., "Hist, eccles.", iv, 14); and especially (c) the passage (Hter., v. 20, 1) pointing out the fact that the Apostles entrusted the Churches to the bishops. On the contrary, historical value cannot be attached to the statement (Ha;r., iii, 14, 2) that St. Paul summoned to Miletus the bishops and presbyters of Ephesus and the vicinity.
C. Eusebius's Account of the Earliest Times. — (1) The accounts that we have of St. James tlie First as Bishop of Jerusalem, based on the " Hypotyposes" of Clement of Alexandria (Eusebius, " Hist, eccl.", ii, 1) cannot be used as historical data. This applies still more to the story (op. cit., iii, 11) of the choice of Simeon as a successor to James. The bare fact, how- ever, that both filled the highest office in Jerusalem, is well attested (cf. Eusebius, ibid., iv, 5, and iv, 12; and especially Hegesippus, iv, 22). (2) Euseb., iii, 37, has a good historical basis. Eusebius tells us here that the disciples of the Apostle, after distributing their goods, spread the Christian religion in the char- acter of "evangelists".
D. Colleges of Presbyters. — The mere fact that the ancient sources speak of colleges of presbyters, with- out any mention of a monarchical bishop at their head, does not warrant the immediate conclusion that there was no such bishop. This is clearly shown by the following texts. The anonymous Antimontanist in Eusebius (Hist, eccl., v, 16, 1 sq.) speaks of such gov- erning presbyters in Ancyra. Tertullian mentions el- ders as presidents of the assemblies (Apologet., xxxix).
E. Charismata. — (1) Eusebius's anonymous Anti- montanist and Miltiades (Hist, eccl., v, 17) testify that the true prophets (of the Old and the New Testa- ment) did not speak in ecstasy (i. e. in unconscious ravings). This looks more like a theological infer- ence than a piece of evidence from first-hand historical sources. (2) In the "Testament of Jesus Christ" (edit. Ephra^m Rahraani, I, xlvii) an ordinance is found prohibiting the imposition of hands on those who possess the gift of healing, of knowledge, or of tongues, since the work of God is already made mani- fest in them. (3) In view of the passages which speak of prophets, it does not seem improbable that the word " prophet", even in early times, signified not merely the possessor of an ecstatic charisma, but was also a substitute for " priest", at a time when men were still afraid to use this expression. Prophet appears here as a synonym for hypopltetcs. This recalls a remark- able passage of the Ambrosiast (in Ep. ad Ephes., iv, 11, 12), where the observation if made that "now" the interpreters of Scripture are cuiled prophets. The "now" may however be due to a hurriedly copied quotation. (4) If Tertullian defines the teachers (doctores) as brethren " endowed with the gift of knowledge" (gratia seientiw donati — De Praescript., xiv), a miraculous charisma cannot be immediately inferred, since the idea of grace or endowment (gratia) was of very wide apTilication.
F. Different Order: of the Hierarchy. — Besides pa- triarchs, prophets, levites, priests, and archons, Ter- tullian mentions als > Apostles, evangelists, and bish- ops (De Corona, i.>;, 2). Only the last three have reference to the New Testament, according to the context. The list given in another passage (Praescr., Ill), bishop, deacon, widow, virgin, doctor, martyr, is evidently arbitrary and accidental. The same may be said of the seven orders of Hippolytus (Fragm. in Prov., ix, 1 ) prophets, martyrs, hierarchs, ascetics, saints, j ust.
