JAPAN
312
JAPAN
successors passed all bounds. From the civil war of
the era of Oniu (1467) the troubles never ceased, and
for a century the empire was a prey to the horrors of
intestinal strife. The shoguns were henceforth no
more than toys in the hands of their chief feudatories.
When the shogunate of the Ashikagas was on the verge
of ruin, a petty daimio of the province of Owari prof-
ited by the anarchy to increase his dominion. At his
death (1549) his fifteen-year-old son, Oda Nobunaga,
came into possession of his inheritance. It was about
this time, during the reign of Uo-Nara-tenno (1527-
1557), that Europeans appeared for the first time in
Japan. The honour of being the first to penetrate
into the country was reserved for a Portuguese named
Fernao Mendes Pinto (1542). Seven years later, 15
August, 1549, St. Francis Xavier landed at the port of
Kagoshima.
Man of genius as he was, Nobunaga conceived the project of concentrating in the hands of a single mas- ter the power which the daimio disputed to the injury of the nation. Having defeated the most turlnilent and subjugated the others to his will, he deposed the last .A.shikaga shogun and seized the reins of govern- ment, but he was treacherously slain by a vassal who owed everything to him, and died leaving his work un- completed. The succession fell to a soldier of fortune named Hideyoshi, who succeeded in removing the sons of his former master. Being incapable of aspiring to the dignity of shogun, he assumed the highest of the titles of the civil hierarchv, that of Kwumpaku. Later, in 1592, he took the title of Taiko (Sovereign Lord), under which name he is known in history. Blinded by ambition, he conceived the project of tak- ing possession of Corea, but despite some successes, this campaign ended in disaster. Hideyoshi did not long survive his failure; he died in 159S. Before his death he had charged five chief daimios with the guardianship of his son Hideyori, who was still a child. Among the five there was one who could not be content with second rank. This was Tokugawa leyasu (1543-1616), a descendant of the Minamoto. After the death of Hideyoshi he withdrew from his colleagues and made war against them. The famous victory which he won in the plain of Sekigahara as- sured him a supremacy which his family retained for two centuries and a half. Three years after his tri- umph leyasu received the title of shogun (1603).
Tokugawa Period (1603-1868).— Two years after this leyasu transmitted the shogunate to his son, withdrew to Sumpu (Shizuoka), and before his death witnessed the annihilation at Osaka (1615) of the de- scendants of Hideyoshi. After a period of great troubles leyasu inaugurated a powerf id feudal regime, an<l gave to Japan a puiitical and .siici:d ccmstitutiim which was upheld ahuost till IStiS. According to this con- stitution the emperor was nominally master of all the territory, even the shogun asking investiture of him. But this investiture was a mere fiction. The office of the shogun being hereditary, the titular possessed ef- fective power, and disposed at will of lands and even of the posts of the emperor's Court. Socially Jajian was divided into eight hereditary and closeil classes: kage (court nobles), daimio, hatamoto, samurai, la- bourers, artisans, merchants, eta (a kind of pariah). Only the first four, the so-called pri\ileged classes, had the right to bear arms. Before dying leyasu had as- sured the power to his family. His iinmcdiate suc- cessors, Hidetada (160.5-22) and leniitsu (1023-51), continued his work and made .still heavier the iron yoke which he had imposed on his country. Hidetada forbade every Japanese under most severe penalties to leave his native land, and it was he who iliscontinued all intercourse with foreigners, except the Dutch, the Chinese, and the Coreans. lemitsu eoinpU'tely closed the country to foreign connnerce, forbade the con- struction of boats which would allow of long trips (1636), caused to be put to death ambassadors who
came to Macao to request liberty of traffic (1640), re-
stricted to the Island of Deshima (Nagasaki) the Dutch
who were authorized to maintain commercial relations
with Japanese, and passed the law which obliged the
daimio to reside part of the time at Yedo and part on
their estates, when they were to leave their wives and
cliildren at the capital as hostages. letsuna, Tsuna-
yoshi, lenobu, letsugu, Yoshimune, leshige, lehara
(1651-1786) merely continued thepolicy of their prede-
cessors, namely, the breaking off of all intercourse with
the outside world, ferocious persecution of Christians,
strict watch of the slightest proceedings of the daimio
and Samurai, skilful spying of the Court of Kyoto,
Draconian laws concerning the press, teaching, Con-
fucianism, etc., such were the principles of the shogun
government. Nevertheless under the administration
of lenari (1786-1837), the foreign powers began to en-
deavour to enter into communication with Japan; but
all their advances were repulsed and the country re-
mained more strictly closed than ever. At the age of
forty-five leyoshi succeeded his father (1837-1858).
Each year foreign vessels appeared in greater num-
bers in sight of Japan, but order was given to fire on
those which approached the shore. li Naosuke, who
was then minister, confided the defence of the country
to Tokugawa Nari-aki, Prince of Mito (1852), and the
emperor ordered public prayers in the Buddhist and
Hhintoist temples. Finally on 8 July, 1853, a fleet
from the United States cast anchor in the Bay of
Uraga. Conuuodore Perry, who commanded it, de-
livered to the shogim (14 July) a message from
President Fillmore, proposing frienflly relations and
a treaty of commei'ce with Japan. He returned 12
February, 1854, ami after long conferences the Bakufu
(government of the .shogun) signed a provisional
treaty which opened the ports of Shimoda and
Hakodate to United States vessels (31 March, 1854).
Mr. Townsend Harris, who was sent as minister plen-
ipotentiary, arrived at Shimoda in August, 1856, and
concluded a definitive treaty (28 July, 1858) with the
Shogun lesada (18.53-58), who died shortly after-
wards. His successor, lemochi (1858-66), signed sim-
ilar treaties with Holland (Donker Curtius, 19 August,
1858), Russia (Poutiatiine, 20 August), England
(Lord Elgin, 27 August), and France (Baron Gros, 9
October). These treaties opened to foreign commerce
the ports of Hakodate, Yokohama, Nagasaki, Niigata,
and Kobe, and the cities of Yedo and Osaka. However,
the news that the shogun had concluded these trea-
ties with the Powers caused a profound sensation at the
court of Kyoto. Public opinion also showed itself much
opposed to the opening up of the country. The prime
minister of the shogun, li Naosuke Kamon no Kami,
was assassinated (24 March, 18(i0), and pi 'its against
the foreigners multiijlied. The Bakvifu tletcrmined to
send an embassy to the Powers to beg them to sus-
pend the treaties (22 January, 1862). Meanwhile the
emperor had confided the protection of Kyoto to the
daimio of Tosa and Satsuma and forbidden the shogun
tocome to the capital. The shogun pledged himself to
take the field against the foreigners within a month.
On a day fixed by the emperor, Mori Motonori, daimio
of Choshu, opened fire on an .-Vmerican vessel which
passed through the Strait of Shimonoseki, anil within
a few days some French and Dutch ships met with the
same treatment. The French squadron, under the
command of Admiral Jaures, bombarded the forts of
Shimonoseki (15 July, 1863), and England sent Ad-
miral Kuper to bombard the town of Kagoshima (15
August, 1863). The following year (7 September.
1864) the combined fleets of France, England, and
Holland took and destroyed all the forts and military
magazines of Shimono.seki. The power of the shogun
was on the decline. Nagato and Satsuma joined forces
against him. In July, 1866, he commenced hostil-
ities, but his forces were defeated. Shortly after-
wards he died suddenly at Osaka. His death was fol-
