FBANCE 192 FRANCE Maximilian were fatal blows at Napo- leon's prestige. This was followed by the defeat of Austria in 1866 and the rise of Prussia, which threatened to deprive France of the leading position in Euro- pean politics. While there was economic prosperity in France and great indus- trial development, there were many signs of dissatisfaction. Opposition to the Empire continued to grow until in 1869 Napoleon was obliged to grant a respon- sible ministry. It soon appeared, how- ever, that this was in reality without power and that the personal govem- roent of the Emperor continued. An ap- peal to the people failed and the neces- sity of regaining his influence led Napo- leon to enter once more upon an aggres- sive course of action in foreign affairs. This issue of the succession to the va- cant Spanish throne precipitated the crisis between France and Prussia, whose foreign policy was now conducted by the genius of Bismarck. Napoleon, deceived by the false reports of his min- isters in relation to the efficiency of the French army, permitted himself to be carried into the war with Prussia, which had been silently preparing for many years for such a conflict. The Franco- Prussian War was of short duration. The succession of defeats for the French ended on Sept. 2, 1870, in the sur- render of Sedan. On Sept. 4, the Emperor and his descendants were de- clared forever excluded from the throne and France was proclaimed a republic. Following a period of disorder the first National Assembly met in February, 1871, at Bordeaux, and the Third Repub- lic was formed. A treaty of peace was signed with Germany at Versailles on Feb. 26 and was quickly ratified by the French Government. France was obliged to cede Alsace and parts of Lor- raine to Prussia, and pav an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs. Not until this indemnity was paid, in September, 1873, were the Prussian troops withdrawn from French territory. There were vio- lent outbreaks of the commune in 1871, but these were suppressed. On Aug. 31 of that year, Thiers received from the National Assembly the title of President of the Republic. He resigned in 1873 and Marshal MacMahon was elected for a period of seven years. The National Assembly in 1873 adopted laws provid- ing for the constitution of the National Legislature. MacMahon resigned in 1879 and was succeeded by Jules Grevy. In spite of attempts at the revival of the monarchy, republican sentiment con- tmued to grow. The constitution was revised in 1884. France, in 1881, entered upon a foreign colonial policy by estab- lishing a protectorate over Tunis. This was followed in 1883 by the enforcement of a claim of certain rights over Mada- gascar, which in 1896 became a French possession. In 1884 the war with China resulted in the establishment of a French protectorate over Annam and Tonking. M. Grevy was re-elected in 1885, but resigned in 1887. He was suc- ceeded by Sadi Carnot, in whose admin- istration occurred the Panama Canal scandal. In 1889 there was a formidable at- tempt to overthrow the republic by a union of all parties favoring a mon- archy. This was under the leadership of General Boulanger. After promises of success, the movement failed and the republic continued to grow in strength. President Carnot was assassinated in 1894 and was succeeded by Casimir- Perier, who in 1895 resigned and was succeeded by Felix Faure. In the latter's administration and that of his successor, Emile Loubet, occurred the famous DreyfuE case, which for a time threat- ened the downfall of the republic. The chief political tendency of this period was the increase of the Socialist power. Alexandre Millerand, the leader of the Socialists, at this time first emerged into power. In 1901 the Associations Law brought religious congregations under government supervision. The struggle between the Church and State continued throughout the following years, and ended in the complete separation of the Church and State in France, in 1905. France had in 1891 formed an alliance with Russia, thus offsetting the impor- tance of the Triple Alliance. This alliance was strengthened throughout the follow- ing years and cordial relations were established with Italy. These relations were chiefly due to Th^ophile Delcasse, who also accomplfehed in 1904 an agree- ment with England by which France abandoned certain rights in Newfound- land in return for territorial concessions in west Africa. France also recognized the predominance of Great Britain in Egypt in return for the right of France to maintain order in Morocco. The defeat of Russia in the war with Japan left France .without a strong ally, and Germany seized the opportunity to bring about the dismissal of Delcasse, whose policies were regarded by the Ger- man Government as hostile to it. The Algeciras Conference, which met in 1906, gave France certain customs rights on the Algerian frontier. Germany pro- tested in 1008 and 1911 that the French sphere of influence was too extensive. In the latter year the German Emperor sent a warship to Agadir to protect German interests. France, however, was strongly supported by England, and Ger-
