domain of philology. The term comprehends: (1) Phonology, or the knowledge of the sounds of the human voice; which appears to include orthography, or the system to be adopted when we endeavor to render, by our own alphabet, the sounds of a foreign language; (2) Etymology; (3) Ideology, or the science of the modification of language by gram- matical forms, according to the various points of view from which men con- template the ideas which words are meant to express.
PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN, a society whose object is the advancement of the study of philol- ogy. Founded in 1869, at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., under the leadership of Prof. William D. Whitney of Yale University. The original members were from the classical section of the Oriental Society. It has annual meetings in different cities of the United States and publishes its "Proceedings" or annual minutes of these meetings. In addition to these the As- sociation publishes the "Transactions" which are composed of learned papers on philology submitted to the society and selected by the executive committee.
PHILOPCEMEN, called the last of the Greeks, really their last great com- mander. He was born in Arcadia, 253 B. c, became in 210, generalissimo of the Achaian League, and conquered the Spar- tans. The greatest of his victories in this long struggle was the battle of Mantinea. He was put to death by poison when a prisoner of the Messe- nians, 183 B. C.
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, AMER- ICAN, a learned society, the oldest now existing in America, being founded as early as the year 1727. At that time it was merely a club in Philadelphia where learned men repaired for conversation, and among them Benjamin Franklin. In 1743 Franklin wrote "A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge Among the British Plantations in America," in which he advocated the formation of a society with members from all the col- onies. The society was formed the next year under the title of American Phil- osophical Society Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge. Franklin was the first president and he was succeeded by David Rittenhouse and then by_ Thomas Jefferson. The present society is the result of a merger of two learned societies both situated in Phil- adelphia. In 1785 a London gentleman, de Magellan, presented 200 guineas to the society the interest on which was to be used to provide a gold medal to be awarded for the best discovery or im- provement in navigation, natural his- tory, or astronomy. The medal is con- sidered a great honor among scientists. Membership in the society is limited to fifteen new members each year from the United States and three from foreign countries. The hall of the Society is located at 104 S. Fifth St., Philadelphia, where there are interesting scientific col- lections, and many objects of great his- torical interest.
PHILOSOPHY, a term said by Diogenes Laertius to have been suggested by Pythagoras, who, on being compli- mented on his wisdom, said that he was not wise, but a lover of wisdom (philos Sophia), the Deity alone being wise. Philosophy, while earnest in amassing knowledge, aimed chiefly at penetrating to the principles of things. Popularly, it is divided into natural and mental phi- losophy, the former investigating the physical laws of nature, the latter those regulating the human mind. The terra philosophy is now generally restricted to the second of these. Even as thus re- duced it has a very wide sphere. Thus, there is a philosophy of history (see History). All the nations of antiquity had a philosophy, that of the Greeks be- ing specially celebrated. The chief schools were: The Pythagorean, com- menced about 500 B. c; the Platonic 374 B. c. ; the Peripatetic, 334 B. C. ; the Scep- tic, 334 B. c; the Cynic, 330 B. c; the Epicurean, 306 B. c; the Stoic, 280 b. c; the Middle Academy, 278 B. c; the New Academy, 160 B. c; the New Platonists, A. D. 200 (?). Of modern systems the perceptive and sensational philosophy of Locke arose about 1690; the idealistic of Berkeley and Hume, 1710; the common- sense philosophy of Reid, etc., 1750; the transcendental of Kant, 1770; the scien- tific philosophy of Fichte, 1800; the ideal- istic philosophy of Hegel in 1810; the positive philosophy of Comte in 1830, and the evolutionary philosophy of Herbert Spencer in 1852, or more deci- dedly in 1855. Also the course of sciences read in the schools, and required for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the universities of Germany, etc., and cor- responding to Arts in the United States. For more modern philosophy consult the works of Jamles, Royce, Bergson, Von Mach, Sidgwick, Taylor, etc.
PHILOSOPHY, FATHER OF. See Thales.
PHILTER, a potion supposed to have the power of exciting love. At times, poisonous drugs were employed, the death of Lucretius and the madness of Caligula being alike ascribed to philters administered by their wives.
