the water rail of Europe (R. aquaticus), about 11 inches in length, of an olive brown color, marked with black above, and of a bluish-ash color beneath, with white transverse markings on the belly, much esteemed for the table; the Virginian rail of the United States (R. virginianus), somewhat smaller than the water rail of Europe; and the great-breasted rail or fresh-water marsh hen (R. elegans), about 20 inches long, which inhabits the marshes of the Southern States of the United States. The land rail, so named, is the Corn Crake (q. v.).
RAIL WAGON, a combination vehicle so constructed as to be readily convertible for use on any ordinary roadway or on a railroad track. It was invented by Joseph C. Brown, of Toledo, O., in 1898.
RAILWAY BROTHERHOODS, labor organizations of the employees of American railroads, chief of which are: Grand International Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, founded in 1863; Order of Railway Conductors of America, founded in 1868; Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, founded in 1873; Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen, founded in 1883; Brotherhood of Railway Telegraphers, founded in 1886. A number of others have been organized since, chief of which is the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees and Railroad Shop Laborers. This latter organization, of insignificant size before the war with Germany, being composed largely of unskilled laborers, acquired a membership of over 200,000 during the war and a large surplus in the treasury. Over a million dollars of this money was invested in two clothing and one glove factory, from which the organization now supplies its members with laborers' clothing and underwear and gloves at cost price. Before the war the railway brotherhood organizations were considered the most conservative of all American labor organizations. Through a system of adjustment boards, involving extended negotiations with employers in the settlement of complaints, strikes were rendered almost impossible. A strong legislative committee also made their influence strongly felt in the legislative bodies of the country. Powerful and influential, the members of the brotherhoods were the best paid element of the working classes of the country. Their organizations stood alone and independent from the rest of organized labor, not even being affiliated with the American Federation of Labor.
Since the war, however, and under the influence of Warren Stone, Chief of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, the brotherhoods have become the most radical of the regular labor bodies. In 1919 they united in presenting to the Federal Government a demand for the nationalization of the railroads of the country, the proposal becoming known as the Plumb Plan, being formulated by Glenn Plumb, attorney for the brotherhoods. Finding neither legislative nor popular support, the plan was abandoned early in 1920. In the latter part of 1919 and during 1920 several of the brotherhoods turned their attention toward Consumers' Co-operation as a means to bringing down the cost of living. “We realize,” said Grand Chief Stone, “that by a continuous demand for higher wages, even though granted, we gain nothing if the cost of living continues to rise. What we want is, not a rise in wages, but a lowering of the cost of living.” The principal brotherhoods had begun, in 1920, the establishment of a series of co-operative banks throughout the country, as a basis for further co-operative enterprises. In the spring of 1920 there occurred a revolt against the authorized heads of the brotherhoods from within the membership, known as the “outlaw strikes.” All over the Eastern States, beginning in Chicago, railroad employees abandoned their work by the thousands, in spite of the appeals of the brotherhood leaders that they remain at their posts. The protest was considered to be against the delay in the fulfillment of promises made by government authorities that higher wages should be granted. Toward the summer of 1920 the outlaw strikes gradually dwindled without disrupting the brotherhood organizations.
RAILWAYS. No invention, aside from that of the steam engine itself, has had so revolutionary an influence on modern social and industrial conditions. Without railway transportation modern trade and commerce would be an impossibility.
Rails, as a means to facilitating the drawing of heavy loads, preceded the invention of the locomotive by more than a century. In 1649 wooden rails were laid by the collieries in the north of England for cars drawn by horses, for the transportation of coal from the pits to the near-by towns, and even to the waterfronts, where it could be loaded on barges and vessels. Along these flanged beams cars were drawn by horses with such comparative ease that instead of a load of 1,700 lbs. by a common road, a load of two tons could now be drawn by a single horse.
In about 1740 cast iron rails, fastened on wooden sleepers, were instituted. Ten years later iron rails were in gen-
